Magagula is a graduate fellow from the University of Swaziland. He has done research with various consultancy firms in Swaziland before. He is a part-time researcher with Centre for Human rights and development and Panacea Consulting. Currently he is the Municipal AIDS Program Manager with AMICAALL. See the Archive Version. Introduction Government Foreign Relations. The Justice System of Zambia. The Constitution and the Judiciary. National Sovereignty and the state. Protection of the right to life.

Protection of the right to personal liberty. The right of persons with disabilities. Infringement on judicial independence. Judicial tenure and remuneration. Removal of judges from office. Specialist Courts in Zambia. The Legal Aid Board. Law schools in Zambia. Law Association of Zambia. Centre for Human Rights and Democracy CHRD.

Christian Council of Zambia CCZ. Foundation for Democratic Process FODEP. Human Rights Committee of the Law Association of Zambia LAZ. Inter-African Network for Human Rights AFRONET. Legal Resources Foundation LRF. National Women's Lobby Group. Office of Social Education of the Zambian Episcopal Conference ZEC.

Women's Rights Committee of the Law Association of Zambia WRC. Zambia Civic Education Association ZCEA. The Electoral Commission of Zambia. Political biography of President Michael Sata. The military—trials, tribulations and hope. Civil Society expertise In Zambia. Zambia derives its name from the Zambezi River.

The river runs across the western and southern border and then forms Victoria Falls and flows into Lake Kariba and on to the Indian Ocean. It is a landlocked country with several large freshwater lakes, including Lake Tanganyika, Lake Mweru, Lake Bangweulu, and the largest man-made lake in Africa, Lake Kariba. The terrain consists of high plateaus, large savannas, and hilly areas; the highest altitude is in the Muchinga Mountains, at 6, feet 1, meters.

The Great Rift Valley cuts through the southwest and Victoria Falls, the most visited site in Zambia, is in the South. Zambia lies between the Democratic Republic of Congo to the north, Tanzania to the northeast, Malawi to the east, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Botswana, and Namibia to the south, and Angola to the west. The country measures approximatelysquare kilometres with a population of approximately 11 Zambia's population comprises more than 70 Bantu-speaking ethnic groups.

The population is comprised primarily 97 percent of seven main tribes and a collection of seventy-five minor tribes. There is also a small percentage of citizens from other African nations. The remaining population is of Asian, Indian, and European descent. Because of conflicts in the border countries of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Angola, there has been a large influx of refugees in recent years.

Most Zambians are subsistence farmers. The predominant religion is a blend of traditional beliefs and Christianity; Christianity is the official national religion. Expatriates, a majority of whom are British about 15, and South African, live mainly in Lusaka and in the Copper belt in northern Zambia, where they are employed in mines and related activities.

Zambia also has a small but economically important Asian population, most of whom are Indians. The indigenous hunter-gatherer occupants of Zambia began to be displaced or absorbed by more advanced migrating tribes about 2, years ago. The major waves of Bantu-speaking immigrants began in the 15th century, with the greatest influx between the late 17th and early 19th centuries.

They came primarily from the Luba and Lunda tribes of southern Democratic Republic of Congo and northern Angola but were joined in the 19th century by Ngoni peoples from the south. By the latter part of that century, the various peoples of Zambia were largely established in the areas they currently occupy. Except for an occasional Portuguese explorer, the area lay untouched by Europeans for centuries.

After the midth century, it was penetrated by Western explorers, missionaries, and traders. David Livingstone, inwas the first European to see the magnificent waterfalls on the Zambezi River. He named the falls after Queen Victoria, and the Zambian town near the falls is named after him.

InCecil Rhodes, spearheading British commercial and political interests in Central Africa, obtained mineral rights concession from local chiefs. In the same year, Northern and Southern Rhodesia now Zambia and Zimbabwe, respectively were proclaimed a British sphere of influence. Southern Rhodesia was annexed formally and granted self-government inand the administration of Northern Rhodesia was transferred to the British colonial office in as a protectorate.

Inboth Rhodesians were joined with Nyasaland now Malawi to form the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. Northern Rhodesia was the center of much of the turmoil and crisis that characterized the federation in its last years. At the core of the controversy were insistent African demands for greater participation in government and European fears of losing political control.

A two-stage election held in October and December of resulted in an African majority in the legislative council and an uneasy coalition between the two African nationalist parties. The council passed resolutions calling for Northern Rhodesia's secession from the federation and demanding full internal self-government under a new constitution and a new national assembly based on a broader, more democratic franchise. On December 31,the federation was dissolved, and Northern Rhodesia became the Republic of Zambia on October 24, At independence, despite its considerable mineral wealth, Zambia faced major challenges.

Domestically, there were few trained and educated Zambians capable of running the government, and the economy was largely dependent on foreign expertise. Abroad, three of its neighbors--Southern Rhodesia and the Portuguese colonies of Mozambique and Angola--remained under white-dominated rule.

Rhodesia's white-ruled government unilaterally declared independence in In addition, Zambia shared a border with South African-controlled South-West Africa now Namibia.

Zambia's sympathies lay with forces opposing colonial or white-dominated rule, particularly in Southern Rhodesia. During the next decade, it actively supported movements such as the Union for the Total Liberation of Angola UNITAthe Zimbabwe African People's Union ZAPUthe African National Congress of South Africa ANCand the South-West Africa People's Organization SWAPO.

Conflicts with Rhodesia resulted in the closing of Zambia's borders with that country and severe problems with international transport and power supply. However, the Kariba hydroelectric station on the Zambezi River provided sufficient capacity to satisfy the country's requirements for electricity.

A railroad to the Tanzanian port of Dar-es-Salaam, built with Chinese assistance, reduced Zambian dependence on railroad lines south to South Africa and west through an increasingly troubled Angola. By the late s, Mozambique and Angola had attained independence from Portugal. Zimbabwe achieved independence in accordance with the Lancaster House agreement, but Zambia's problems were not solved. Civil war in the former Portuguese colonies generated refugees and caused continuing transportation problems.

The Benguela Railroad, which extended west through Angola, was essentially closed to traffic from Zambia by the late s. Zambia's strong support for the ANC, which had its external headquarters in Lusaka, created security problems as South Africa raided ANC targets in Zambia.

In the mids, the price of copper, Zambia's principal export, suffered a severe decline worldwide. Zambia turned to foreign and international lenders for relief, but as copper prices remained depressed, it became increasingly difficult to service its growing debt.

In response to growing popular demand, and after lengthy, difficult negotiations between the Kaunda government and opposition groups, Zambia enacted a new constitution in and shortly thereafter became a multi-party democracy. Kaunda's successor, Frederick Chiluba, made efforts to liberalize the economy and privatize industry, but allegations of massive corruption characterized the latter part of his administration.

By the mids, despite limited debt relief, Zambia's per capita foreign debt remained among the highest in the world. Although poverty continues to be a significant problem in Zambia, its economy has stabilized, attaining single-digit inflation inreal GDP growth, decreasing interest rates, and increasing levels of trade. Much of its growth is due to foreign investment in Zambia's mining sector and higher copper prices on the world market. InZambia qualified for debt relief under the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries initiative, consisting of approximately U.

Zambia became a republic immediately upon attaining independence in October The constitution promulgated on August 25,abrogated the original constitution. The new constitution and the national elections that followed in December were the final steps in achieving what was called a "one-party participatory democracy. National policy was formulated by the Central Committee of the United National Independence Party UNIPthe sole legal party in Zambia.

The cabinet executed the central committee's policy. In accordance with the intention to formalize UNIP supremacy in the new system, the constitution stipulated that the sole candidate in elections for the office of president was the person selected to be the president of UNIP by the party's general conference.

The second-ranking person in the Zambian hierarchy was UNIP's secretary general. In Decemberat the end of a tumultuous year that included riots in the capital and a coup attempt, President Kenneth Kaunda signed legislation ending UNIP's monopoly on power. Zambia enacted a new constitution in Augustwhich enlarged the National Assembly from members to a maximum of members, established an electoral commission, and allowed for more than one presidential candidate who no longer had to be a member of UNIP.

The first multi-party elections in November resulted in the victory of the Movement for Multi-Party Democracy MMD and the election of President Frederick Chiluba, a former trade Unionist. The present Constitution dates from June While similar to the Constitution, it contains amended provisions regarding the qualifications of presidential candidates and grants the President and the National Assembly increased powers in respect of their relationship with the judiciary.

The May amendment set new limits on the presidency including a retroactive two-term limit, and a requirement that both parents of a candidate be Zambians- by birth or descent. This amendment had the direct effect of excluding former President Kaunda, whose parents were Malawian, from standing in the presidential elections.

The UNIP boycotted the November elections that confirmed the government of MMD and President Chiluba. Executive power is vested in the President, who is elected directly by universal suffrage for a term of five years and may be re-elected only once. The President is the Head of State and the Commander-in-Chief. The President appoints the Ministers of his Cabinet from among the members of the National Assembly, and they are collectively answerable to the National Assembly.

The President has the power to declare a state of emergency and to dissolve the National Assembly. Article 45 of the Constitution provides for the office of the Vice-President, who is appointed from among the members of the National Assembly and performs such functions as are assigned to him by the President of the Republic. Legislative power is vested in the Parliament, which consists of the President and the National Assembly.

The National Assembly is composed of members elected by universal, direct suffrage, with not more than eight members nominated by the President, and the Speaker, nominated by the members of the National Assembly. Traditional chiefs are not qualified to be elected as members of the Parliament. Legislation passed by the National Assembly must be assented to by the President in order to become law. Members of the Parliament form parliamentary committees with the mandate to consider specific matters or bills.

The Constitution also provides for a House of Chiefs, an advisory body composed of 27 chiefs from the various provinces [1]. British House of Lordsbeing neither representative i. The process by which individuals qualify for membership varies, but is based on tradition specific to his or her e. Historically, chiefs were the last indigenous rulers before colonisation of a people, and their modern versions often continue to play a local cultural role of varying significance.

The country is divided into nine provinces, including the capital of Lusaka, each of which is administered by a centrally appointed Provincial Secretary and a partially elected Provincial Council. The provinces are subdivided into 55 districts, each administered by a centrally appointed Governor and a partially elected District Council. Presidential and parliamentary elections are to be held on 27 December At the beginning of President Chiluba had seemed eager to amend the Constitution in order to seek a third term, but on 8 Mayfollowing pressure from the opposition, international donors and even by members of his own cabinet, Chiluba announced that he would not stand for an unconstitutional third term in office.

In Mayan impeachment petition was filed against President Chiluba before the House Speaker of the National Assembly.

The petitioners, mostly MMD parliamentarians, obtained 65 signatures, enough to compel the Speaker to convene parliament to hear charges of gross misconduct against President Chiluba, who had come under intense criticism for corruption in his government.

On 30 Maythe Parliament postponed the debate on the impeachment motion. In Decemberat the end of a tumultuous year that included riots in the capital and a coup attempt, President Kaunda signed legislation ending UNIP's monopoly on power.

In response to growing popular demand for multi-party democracy, and after lengthy, difficult negotiations between the Kaunda government and opposition groups, Zambia enacted a new constitution in August The constitution enlarged the National Assembly from members to a maximum of members, establishing an electoral commission, and allowed for more than one presidential candidate who no longer had to be members of UNIP.

The constitution was amended again in to set new limits on the presidency including a retroactive two-term limit, and a requirement that both parents of a candidate be Zambian-born. The National Assembly is comprised of directly elected members, up to 8 president- appointed members and a speaker. Zambia is divided into nine provinces, each administered by an appointed governor. Political and Economic outlook- Independence to date. Zambia achieved independence from Britain in and since then, there have been three Republics, starting with multi-party politics [3] that ensured that opposition political parties existed until when the one-party system came into being.

Although Zambia ceased to be a multi-party democracy inthe country still remained a one-party-participatory democracy essentially meaning that the people still participated in elections [4] to elect their leaders. The competitiveness [5] of the elections especially at parliamentary and local government levels remained very high but that was not the case at presidential [6] where effectively no competition existed.

Inthe country reverted [7] to pluralism adopting a multi-party democratic system. In the elections that followed the following year, the Movement for Multiparty Democracy MMD emerged as part of the multi-partisan political system that followed the year rule of Kenneth Kaunda and his United National Independence Party UNIP.

UNIP remained in opposition to the MMD thereafter. The country used the political changes to set pace to key democratic tenets for those who govern and how to ensure that a high standard of democracy and accountability exists [8]. The aggrieved parties, mainly Anderson Mazoka, Godfrey Miyanda and Christon Tembo went to court with a petition. After a long-protracted hearing and ruling, the Court ruled in favour of Mwanawasa.

Elections held thereafter have been under close scrutiny amidst allegations of rigging, and in all fairness Zambia has had to strive to build confidence in the outcomes of recent elections including those held inand Relentlessly, the Patriotic Front PFfounded as a break-away from the MMD inchallenged the MMD in the fourth election, defeating the previous ruling party in an election which featured a close race between two main contenders [10] whose mutual distrust occasioned concern especially against a harsh party polarization that characterized the run-up to the elections.

Michael Chilufya Sata triumphed over Rupiah Banda, to make him the 5th Zambian President, since independence. From up to the MMD dominated the national politics.

During this period MMD implemented reforms steering Zambia towards a more liberal and free-market economy. The country most recently enjoyed more than 10 years of sustained economic development. The World Bank declared the country as a lower middle income country in Many Zambians are yet to understand and appreciate the shifting of Zambia from a least developed country to a low middle income country because of the fact that poverty levels are still very high, manifested in a continuously increasing cost of living.

Despite attempts to make the economy more diversified, the growth still is highly dependent on revenues from the Zambian mining industry causing the Zambian economy to be very sensitive to fluctuations in commodity prices at international market.

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Poor living conditions have encouraged citizens and civil society organizations [15] to demand that the State provides clean water, housing, food, employment and equitable access to employment through the inclusion of such rights in the Constitution. Despite these being included in Policies, plans and programs there has not been a point of reference for Zambians to hold the government accountable beyond stakeholder meeting and advocacy efforts, which in many instances the government has overlooked with impunity, as there is no legal binding on the part of government.

It must also be noted that Zambians have been demanding for the enactment of a law that will enable public leaders, especially members of parliament, to be recalled if they have not performed to the expectations of the electorate. In the current Constitution such provision does not exist. The demand for representation was high, with indications that most Zambians were getting more together with others to raise a problem or issue.

Engagement with formal and informal representatives, especially in rural areas was also active. Despite all this most Zambians continue to face logistical challenges associated with distances from government offices and infrastructure which limits their capacity to interact with government officials and formal representatives.

Notwithstanding, it is observed that democratic institutions in Zambia fundamentally perform their functions. However, with extended powers given to the presidency, legislators the national assembly have limited possibilities to supervise the government effectively.

The Executive dominance is one of the disconcerting features of modern African governance systems, and Zambia is not in anyways insulated from the practice [18]. In such a political environment checking executive power is a major factor in good governance.

Not much has been done to invigorate checks and balances, strengthen separation of powers or constrain the executive [19]. In the case of Zambia, the aspect of shifting power bases or indeed balancing power between and among the arms of government underlies callings for constitutional guarantees, especially in the on-going constitutional making process.

Despite all this, Zambia has achieved a considerable level of progress in regard to democracy, good governance and leadership institutions compared to the years before The Mo Ibrahim Index of African Governance rates Zambia as having improved its overall governance quality, especially between and and thus received a score of 57 out of for governance quality.

According to the Mo Ibrahim Index the country is ranked 16th out of 53 countries. InZambia improved from a hybrid to a flawed democracy on the Economist Intelligent Unit Democracy Index [20]. The overall Democracy Index is based on five categories: Countries are placed within one of four types of regimes: One of the factors that can be attributed to this improvement is the increase of information on democracy through community radio stations. Currently, each province has a community radio station based in one or two districts.

The community radio stations have been offering a platform that never existed before where citizens can freely debate and discuss issues affecting the country.

There are however, still many rural districts in Zambia which have no access to any Zambian radio or television and do not even have community radio stations.

Those near the border with neighboring countries end up listening to foreign radio stations. Chiengi and Milenge district in Luapula plus Shangombo and Sesheke in Western are just a few of the examples that are cited, particularly that the current project supported by the EU through Diakonia Zambia is operating in such areas.

Analysis of the findings in, and showed that Zambians have consistently rejected military rule as well as one-party rule and one-man rule. A recent EU Report [21] notes that government effectiveness is the area of governance in which Zambia is worst performing, below the Sub-Saharan average. Public services are plagued by staff shortages, unmotivated and often ineffective or absent staff.

Until recently, most financial releases from the Treasury to spending ministries and agencies was very minimal, unpredictable and focused on meeting personal emolument expenses for civil servants with trickling funding to development projects [22]. It further noted that the government still struggles with accountability for public resources and inability to effectively deliver services. While levels of participation in accountability can be considered as high, approaches to this differ widely and this is largely localized.

Accountability takes various forms but primarily solutions are addressed by community, religious or traditional leaders. In some instances, civil society has taken up some of the problems identified by local communities to government and policy makers.

In recent years, especially in cases where community radio is established, citizens have used this media form to hold local government accountable. Economic Gains, Electoral Dissatisfaction. In addition, the positive economic record is largely attributed to the time and leadership of late President Levy Mwanawasawith the earlier privatization of state owned enterprises under the late Frederick Chiluba being the reason for the high job losses and economic stagnation until Many of the poorest households are headed by women.

However, their representation in politics and national development remains inferior. The dissatisfaction with democracy can also be attributed to the high levels of poverty in the country.

A study by Simon [25] in found that economic trends helped shape patterns of political participation in the first five years of Zambia's new democracy, with economic difficulties depressing voter registration and turnout.

In his study, Simon observed that many of the countries that underwent transitions to democracy in the 'Third Wave' did so under conditions of severe poverty--conditions that pose a high barrier to the consolidation of democracy. Poverty threatens the generation of democratic institutions and patterns of behaviour because it affects political participation.

Poverty does indeed appear to reduce political participation in Zambia. Evidence from district-level data as well as from individual-level survey data lends support to the notion that poverty undermines participation according to either of the means suggested above. Zambia was much poorer in than it was ten years earlier, with 8 in every 10 Zambians living below the poverty line. All social indicators were negative, including the high unemployment levels of more than 40 percent, highest maternal mortality rates in the world, high infant and child mortality, inhabitable urban dwellings and homelessness, declining literacy rates and poverty wages.

The poverty situation described above has not changed very much under the successive governments of the late President Mwanawasa, former president Rupiah Banda and now under President Sata. In a nutshell, issues of economy have a direct bearing on the manner in which politics are shaped and invariably play out. There is belief that MMD lost power as citizens became more fatigued that they were not so accountable, growing intolerance of the MMD to divergent views leading to reduced participation space for key stakeholders in the governance process.

MMD had not responded to pertinent issues people were looking forward to such as employment, growing concerns of raising corruption going on unabated. Zambia is a member of the Non-Aligned Movement NAMthe African Union, the Southern African Development Community SADCand the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa COMESAwhich is headquartered in Lusaka.

President Kaunda was a persistent and visible advocate of change in southern Africa, supporting liberation movements in Angola, Mozambique, Namibia, Southern Rhodesia Zimbabweand South Africa.

Many of these liberation organizations were based in Zambia during the s and s. President Chiluba assumed a visible international role in the mid- and late s. Zambia provided troops to UN peacekeeping initiatives in Mozambique, Rwanda, Angola, and Sierra Leone. Zambia was the first African state to cooperate with the International Tribunal investigation of the genocide in Rwanda.

InZambia took the lead in efforts to establish a cease-fire in Democratic Republic of the Congo. After the signing of a cease-fire agreement in Lusaka in July and AugustZambia was active in supporting the Congolese peace effort, although activity diminished considerably after the Joint Military Commission tasked with implementing the ceasefire relocated to Kinshasa in September During President Mwanawasa's administration, Zambia contributed troops to support UN peacekeeping operations in southern Sudan.

During his tenure as SADC Chair, President Mwanawasa brought the issue of Zimbabwe to the fore in the SADC, taking a lead role in pressuring President Mugabe for reforms in his country. Zambia's history of stability and its commitment to regional peace has made it a haven for large numbers of refugees. Currently, Zambia hosts approximately 87, refugees down from a high ofinincluding roughly 51, Congolese, 27, Angolans, and 9, other nationalities mainly Rwandans, Burundians, and Somalis. In recent years, Zambia has made serious efforts to repatriate many of these refugees, including organized repatriation for 74, Angolan and 17, Congolese refugees.

Economic policies soon after independence. At independence inZambia's economy grew the British South Africa Company BSAC, originally setup by the British imperialist Cecil Rhodes retained commercial assets and mineral rights that it acquired from a concession signed with the Litunga of Barotseland in the Lochner Concession.

Only by threatening to expropriate the BSAC, on the eve of independence, did the incoming Zambian government manage to get the BSAC to relinquish the mineral rights. The Federation's government assigned roles to each of the three territories: Southern Rhodesia was assigned the responsibility of providing managerial and administrative skills; Northern Rhodesia provided copper revenues; and Nyasaland provided the Black labour.

After independence, Zambia followed in the steps of the Soviet Union by instituting a program of national development plans, under the direction of a National Commission for Development Planning: These two plans, which provided for major investment in infrastructure and manufacturing, were largely implemented and were generally successful.

This was not true for subsequent plans. The Mulungushi Economic Reforms A major switch in the structure of Zambia's economy came with the Mulungushi Reforms of April By JanuaryZambia had acquired majority holding in the Zambian operations of the two major foreign mining corporations, the Anglo American Corporation and the Rhodesia Selection Trust RST ; the two became the Nchanga Consolidated Copper Mines NCCM and Roan Consolidated Mines RCMrespectively.

The Zambian government then created a new parastatal body, the Mining Development Corporation MINDECO. The Finance and Development Corporation FINDECO allowed the Zambian government to gain control of insurance companies and building societies. However, foreign-owned banks such as Barclays, Standard Chartered and Grindlays successfully resisted takeover.

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InINDECO, MINDECO, and FINDECO were brought together under an omnibus parastatal, the Zambia Industrial and Mining Corporation ZIMCOto create one of the largest companies in sub-Saharan Africa, with the country's president, Kenneth Kaunda as Chairman of the Board.

The management contracts under which day-to-day operations of the mines had been carried out by Anglo American and RST were ended in In NCCM and RCM were merged into the giant Zambia Consolidated Copper Mines Ltd ZCCM. Unfortunately for Kaunda and Zambia, the programs of nationalization were ill-timed.

Events that were beyond their control soon wrecked the country's well-laid plans for economic and national development. In a massive increase in the price of oil was followed by a slump in copper prices inresulting in a diminution of export earnings.

By Zambia had a balance-of-payments crisis, and rapidly became massively indebted to the International Monetary Fund IMF. The Third National Development Plan —83 had to be abandoned as crisis management replaced long-term planning. By the mids Zambia was one of the most indebted nations in the world, relative to its gross domestic product GDP. The IMF was insisting that the Zambian government should introduce programs aimed at stabilizing the economy and restructuring it to reduce dependence on copper.

The proposed measures included: Kaunda's removal of food subsidies caused massive increases in the prices of basic foodstuffs; the country's urbanized population rioted in protest. In desperation, Kaunda broke with the IMF in May and introduced a New Economic Recovery Programme in However, this did not help him and he eventually moved toward a new understanding with the IMF in Inwith the collapse of communism in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe on which Kaunda's philosophy of Zambian Humanism had been fashionedKaunda was forced to make a major policy volteface: Time, however, was running out for him.

As Mikhail Gorbachev announced perestroika and glasnostsmall-time dictators who had copied Joseph Stalin 's policies had no choice but to realise that their days were numbered. Kaunda called multiparty elections inand lost them to the Movement for Multiparty Democracy MMD. Kaunda left office with the inauguration of MMD leader Frederick Chiluba as president on 2 November The Frederick Chiluba government —which came to power after democratic multi- party elections in Novemberwas committed to extensive economic reform.

The government privatised many state industries, and maintained positive real interest rates. Exchange controls were eliminated and free market principles endorsed. It remains to be seen whether the Mwanawasa government will follow a similar path of implementing economic reform and undertaking further privatization.

After the government privatized the giant parastatal mining company Zambian Consolidated Copper Mines ZCCMdonors resumed balance-of-payment support. The final transfer of ZCCM's assets occurred on March 31, Although balance-of-payment payments are not the answer to Zambia's long-term debt problems, it will in the short term provide the government some breathing room to implement further economic reforms. The government has, however, spent much of its foreign exchange reserves to intervene in the exchange rate mechanism.

To continue to do so, however, would jeopardize Zambia's debt relief. Zambia qualified for HIPC debt relief incontingent upon the country meeting certain performance criteria, and this should offer a long-term solution to Zambia's debt situation.

In Januarythe Zambian Government informed the International Monetary Fund and World Bank that it wished to renegotiate some of the agreed performance criteria calling for privatization of the Zambia National Commercial Bank and the national telephone and electricity utilities. The Zambian economy has historically been based on the copper-mining industry.

The discovery of copper is owed partly to Frederick Russell Burnhamthe famous American scout who worked for Cecil Rhodes. Inthe first full year of a privatized industry, Zambia recorded its first year of increased productivity since The future of the copper industry in Zambia was thrown into doubt in Januarywhen investors in Zambia are largest copper mine announced their intention to withdraw their investment.

However, surging copper prices from to the present day rapidly rekindled international interest in Zambia's copper sector with a new buyer found for KCCM and massive investments in expanding capacity launched. China has become a major investor in the Zambian copper industry, and in Februarythe two countries announced the creation of a Chinese-Zambian economic partnership zone around the Chambishi copper mine.

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Today copper mining is central to the economic prospects for Zambia, but concerns remain that the economy is not diversified enough to cope with a collapse in international copper prices. Lack of balance-of-payment support meant the Zambian government did not have resources for capital investment and periodically had to issue bonds or otherwise expand the money supply to try to meet its spending and debt obligations.

The government continued these activities even after balance-of-payment support resumed. This has kept interest rates at levels that are too high for local business, fuelled inflationburdened the budget with domestic debt payments, while still falling short of meeting the public payroll and other needs, such as infrastructure rehabilitation. The government was forced to draw down foreign exchange reserves sharply in to meet foreign debt obligations, putting further pressure on the kwacha and inflation.

In mid- to lateZambia's fiscal management became more conservative. In inflation rose to Maize corn is the principal cash crop as well as the staple food. Other important crops include soybeancottonsugarsunflower seeds, wheatsorghumpearl milletcassavatobacco and various vegetable and fruit crops. Floriculture is a growth sector, and agricultural non-traditional exports now rival the mining industry in foreign exchange receipts.

In the past, the agriculture sector suffered from low producer prices, difficulties in availability and distribution of credit and inputs, and the shortage of foreign exchange. There are, however, positive macroeconomic signs, rooted in reforms implemented in the early and mids. Zambia's floating exchange rate and open capital markets have provided useful discipline on the government, while at the same time allowing continued diversification of Zambia's export sector, growth in the tourist industryand procurement of inputs for growing businesses.

Some parts of the Copper Belt have experienced a significant revival as spin-off effects from the massive capital reinvestment are experienced. Salaula second-hand clothing imported from the West. Standard economic theory and empirical data indicates that second-hand clothing import can have positive effects in a country like Zambia one of the least developed countries in the world.

The salaula market reduces the proportion of income that a family has to spend on clothing. It also helps to keep employments like repairs and alterations in business and forces tailors to proceed into more specialize production of styled garments. There is a downside to such imports, however; the massive importation of used clothing from the developed world has resulted in a near-total collapse of the Zambian indigenous textile industry.

In the face of cheap used clothing, tailors' specialized production may be irrelevant - customers will buy the least expensive clothing available, irrespective of style. Those who might otherwise work at textile mills or clothing factories are left jobless, or else make significantly less money in the salaula resale business. About two-thirds of Zambians live in poverty. Life expectancy at birth is about 51 years, and maternal mortality is perpregnancies. Zambia is also one of Sub-Saharan Africa's most highly urbanized countries.

Over one-third of the country's Unemployment and underemployment are serious problems. Once a middle-income country, Zambia began to slide into poverty in the s when copper prices declined on world markets. The socialist government made up for falling revenue by increasing borrowing.

After democratic multi-party elections, the Chiluba government came to power in November committed to an economic reform program. The government was successful in some areas, such as privatization of most of the parastatals, maintenance of positive real interest rates, the elimination of exchange controls, and endorsement of free market principles.

Corruption grew dramatically under the Chiluba government. Zambia has yet to address effectively issues such as reducing the size of the public sector and improving Zambia's social sector delivery systems.

Zambia is one of sub-saharan african 's most highly urbanized countries. About one-half of the country's National GDP has actually doubled since independence, but due in large part to high birth rates and AIDS per capita annual incomes are currently at about two-thirds of their levels at independence.

Social indicators continue to decline, particularly in measurements of life expectancy at birth about 50 years and maternal and infant mortality 85 per 1, live births.

The high population growth rate of 2. Copper output has increased steadily sincedue to higher copper prices and the opening of new mines. The maize harvest was again good inhelping boost GDP and agricultural exports.

Cooperation continues with international bodies on programs to reduce poverty, including a new lending arrangement with the IMF in the second quarter of A tighter monetary policy will help cut inflation, but Zambia still has a serious problem with high public debt. For 30 years, copper production declined steadily from a high ofmetric tons to a low ofmetric tons.

The decline was the result of poor management of state-owned mines and lack of investment. With the privatization of the mines in Aprilthe downward trend in production and exports was reversed as a result of investments in plant rehabilitation, expansion, increased exploration, and high copper prices on the international market. Copper production rose tometric tons inbut slumping copper prices in late put significant pressure on the mining companies and government revenue. Zambia experienced positive economic growth for the ninth consecutive year in with a GDP of U.

Year-on-year inflation grew to double digits in latedue to rising fuel and food prices. In Aprilthe International Monetary Fund IMF and the World Bank's International Development Association IDA provided Zambia significant debt service relief and debt forgiveness under the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries HIPC initiative.

Zambia was the 17th country to reach the HIPC completion point and has benefited from approximately U. Zambia is among the beneficiaries of this additional multilateral debt relief. Zambia also completed a Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility PRGF arrangement with the IMF for the period The Zambian Government is pursuing an economic diversification program to reduce the economy's reliance on the copper industry.

This initiative seeks to exploit other components of Zambia's rich resource base by promoting agriculture, tourism, gemstone mining, and hydropower. The government is also seeking to create an environment that encourages entrepreneurship and private-sector led growth.

Zambia's economy has been affected by the global economic crisis and the fall in world copper prices. Despite Zambia's potential in the agricultural and natural resources sectors, the country has been unable to register itself as a competitive market player locally, regionally and internationally. The main constraints to agricultural development and small-scale rural agribusiness competitiveness in the last decade have been: Lack of capacity, clarity and consistency within Zambian Government to generate and implement liberalization policies conducive to private sector-led agricultural growth.

Poor market access and under-developed markets that limit production. Inadequate sources of finance and capital. Low farm and firm-level production and productivity due to inadequate provision of technical information, limited use of modern production and value-adding technologies, and absence of business management services.

Activities under the program focus on attaining significant improvements in Zambia's competitive position within the region and internationally, enabling Zambia to achieve trade-based rural economic growth and poverty reduction. The Zambia Development Agency [27] ZDA was established in by an Act of Parliament No.

These institutions were the Zambia Investment Centre ZICZambia Privatisation Agency ZPAExport Board of Zambia EBZSmall Enterprise Development Board SEDB and Zambia Export Processing Zones Authority ZEPZA. The amalgamated Agency is therefore a semi-autonomous institution with its Board of Directors appointed, by the Minister of Commerce Trade and Industry.

The Board comprises members of the public and private sector as well as civil society organisations, while both the Chairperson and the Vice Chairperson are appointed from the private sector. The agency also has the challenge to develop an internationally competitive Zambian economy through innovations that promote high skills, productive investment and increased trade.

The ZDA principally furthers the economic development by promoting efficiency, investment and competitiveness in businesses, as well as promoting exports. It also addresses the high cost of doing business in the country by simplifying the processing of various business formalities, such as licensing. It also promotes the growth of the SME sector by providing incentives that can propel long-term sustainable domestic growth. ZDA is a one stop shop for all investors and this is evidence that Zambia is open for all to do business.

United States economic assistance to Zambia predates the country's independence. In the mids, a number of Zambians received scholarships to study in the United States. In the s, an expanded USAID-financed program provided training and food aid. At independence inZambia was the second richest nation in Africa south of the Sahara.

However, by the late s, the strong post-independence economy had stalled. Copper prices had collapsed and copper ore exports declined. Inthe United States responded to these problems by formally creating the USAID mission in Zambia. Two decades after independence, Zambia went from being one of the richest countries in sub-Saharan Africa to one of the poorest. By the late s, the economy had effectively collapsed and important social indicators, such as infant mortality, were increasing.

Hindered by destructive policies similar to those weakening the economy, the health and education systems collapsed. There were acute shortages of essential medical supplies, facilities fell into disrepair and many Zambian health professionals began moving abroad in search of liveable wages. For many years, political constraints frustrated economic assistance and development efforts in Zambia. However, inZambia saw its ruling party swept from power. A new government came in with a platform based on liberalizing the economic and political systems.

Since this change, there have been dramatic improvements in the structure and performance of the economy. Zambia is now more open in many respects and the economic situation is more promising, but much more remains to be done. USAID's principal goal in Zambia is to help the country realize the immense economic potential it possesses. USAID supports programs that work towards growth with equity.

The project focuses on value chains and on the development of support industries, such as financial services and inputs. MATEP focuses on increasing the level of Zambian agriculture and natural resources exports into regional and international markets through overcoming policy, tariff, non-tariff barriers to trade and forging linkages [30].

FSRP builds capacity among agricultural sector planners to achieve improved policy making through applied agricultural economic research, policy analysis, outreach and dialogue [31]. The Land O'Lakes dairy development program targets vulnerable small-scale farmers who are taught animal husbandry and fodder crop production, and subsequently provided with one dairy cow and veterinary services.

Milk collection centers are provided with technical assistance to ensure quality and timely sale to urban-based processors. Zambia Agribusiness Technical Assistance Center ZATAC — Copper belt Economic Diversification Project.

This is a public-private partnership Global Development Allianceproviding technical assistance and equipment to farmer business groups in a traditional Copper belt mining area. These groups are engaged in adding value to primary commodities through modern farming methods such as irrigation, and small-scale processing, as well as developing market linkages [33].

Zambia Agricultural Commodity Agency ZACA.

ZACA issues warehouse receipts against agricultural commodities stored in warehouses, which they certify to be safe and secure. The receipts, defining the quality and quantity of a given commodity are used as collateral instruments of title in obtaining commercial loans against the stored commodities [34]. The Agricultural Consultative Forum ACFestablished inis a platform for stakeholder consultation, information sharing, networking, and institutional capacity strengthening within the agricultural sector.

Through ACF Advisory Notes, the government is provided with key inputs for policy decisions, representing the views of sector stakeholders [35]. Agriculture has been the largest area of support in the last few years and more recently there has been the inclusion of direct budget support [36]. After Zambia reached the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries HIPC completion point infinancial support was increased.

This has resulted in a reduction of debt service obligations as a percentage of gross domestic product GDP from 4. The Bank also provides analytical and advisory services designed to help Zambia improve its policy environment and accelerate its development efforts. The Bank has also helped in the development of legislation on agricultural marketing, strengthening government capacity and reducing the cost of doing business in Zambia.

Independent sinceZambia has experienced five successful multiparty elections since The country has defined its own development agenda through its Vision and the Sixth National Development Plan FNDP.

The first step came in July when Zambia was classified a lower middle income country by the World Bank. Zambia has had a decade of rapid economic growth. A combination of prudent macroeconomic management, market liberalization and privatization efforts, investments in the copper industry and related infrastructure, and steep increase in copper prices helped achieve an average annual growth of about 5.

The Zambian government consolidated macroeconomic stability under International Monetary Fund IMF programs latest concluded in and successfully navigated the shocks connected with the global economic and financial crises. Moreover, the absolute number of poor has increased from about six million in to 7. The urban picture is far better than the rural: Accelerating growth and reducing poverty will necessitate increasing the competitiveness of the Zambian economy by reducing the cost of doing business and ensuring that the rural economy, upon which much of the population depends for its livelihood, contributes meaningfully to overall growth.

Despite vast potential and stated commitments to diversification, the mining sector continues to dominate the economy. Growth was driven by expansion in agriculture, construction, manufacturing, transport and finance. Economic prospects for the future appear bright if growth can be sustained and broadened to accelerate job creation and poverty reduction. After a successive slump in output, copper mining is expected to rebound inand is projected to reach 1.

This is largely due to investment in new mines and the expansion of capacity at existing plants. Robust international copper prices will provide additional stimulus to mining. Growth in other turtle trading strategy 1 long is expected to remain equally robust, supported by infrastructure development and improvements in the business environment.

The economy is projected to grow 6. The country, however, remains vulnerable to external shocks, with a sluggish global economic recovery a concern for its key mining exports.

High youth unemployment and slow progress in poverty reduction may also overshadow the gains made from strong growth and limited inflation [38].

However, the medium-term economic outlook appears favourable, underpinned by sustained expansion in agriculture, construction, manufacturing, transport and communications, and by a rebound in mining. Increasing domestic revenue collection remains a priority for the medium term and large infrastructure developments will require additional resources.

The government plans to raise USD million US dollars via a bond issue in to cover a funding gap for infrastructure projects. This infrastructure investment is expected to boost growth by up to 2 percentage points per annum.

Part of this high level of poverty is due to lack of employment opportunities for youth. With about young people entering the labour market each year, the government has put in place a National Youth Policy and the Youth Enterprise Fund which focus on promoting business activity to create jobs.

The government has also announced plans to transform Zambian national service into a Zambian youth training service with a mandate to strengthen youth skills training. After two successive years of strong growth, the gain in mining faltered to 1. Growth will be underpinned by sustained gains in construction, manufacturing, and transport and communications and a rebound in mining activity.

An expected expansion in non-maize agriculture may also add impetus. Agriculture has been robust in recent years, producing bumper harvests sincewith staples and maize in particular to the fore. Although agriculture is expected to be the main contributor to growth inthis is likely to be below the three-year average mainly because of delayed rains and rural infrastructure challenges which continue to hamper timely distribution of agriculture inputs.

Other key areas are development of irrigation infrastructure, and livestock, fisheries and aquaculture development. Output in the mining and quarrying sector fell 0. As a result copper output was down 2. With the elections having gone smoothly, mining investment should now pick up, barring any adverse international developments. The mining sector accordingly is projected to grow Growth in transport and communications slowed to High interest rates remain a barrier to accessing credit, especially for small businesses.

Total government expenditure stood at The main spending pressures in were related to the general elections and larger-than-anticipated maize purchases. However, recurrent expenditure was kept largely in line at Domestic revenues fell to Domestic revenues are expected to fall to Grants are expected to be unchanged at 1.

Reforms are needed, among them a gradual withdrawal of widespread tax breaks and the introduction of a property tax. A budget proposal to remove copper and cobalt ores and concentrates from the Import VAT Deferment Scheme would significantly enhance revenue mobilisation efforts. The Zambian kwacha depreciated 5. The rate of depreciation would have been higher but for central bank intervention to smooth out sharp movements in the exchange rate and maintain external competitiveness.

The Bank of Zambia remains committed to a floating exchange rate regime. Zambia hosts the headquarters of the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa COMESA and remains active in the Southern Africa Development Community SADC.

It is a founder member of both groups. The Global Competitiveness Report showed that Zambia was ahead of many of its peers in institutional strength and in financial and goods markets efficiency. The external sector remained strong inwith an increase in the current account surplus to USD million, equal to 5. The strong external performance bolstered the level of gross international reserves to more than four months of import cover.

Inthe current account surplus is expected to narrow to 3. The government is trying to improve and consolidate debt management, tightening up oversight procedures.

The government has also agreed to share information with the IMF before contracting any non-concessional loans. In a debt management performance assessment made recommendations in areas needing improvement. Inthe World Bank hailed Zambia as one of the best reformers in Africa.

However, risks to further progress remain and there has been some slippage. In the latest World Bank Ease of Doing Business survey, Zambia dropped to 84 from 80 in the overall rankings.

At the same time, Zambia was ranked 8, second only to South Africa on the continent, on ease of obtaining credit. The government has also embarked on a programme of harmonising business sector how to put radio button in excel 2010 but the controversy over the Zamtel privatisation risks damaging private investment.

At the end of there were 19 commercial banks in Zambia, up from 18 in In they accounted for more than half of total treasury security holdings. The availability of land covered by statutory law is limited, while customary land allocation is at the mercy of local traditional chiefs, many of whom are reluctant to release it for investment. As a result, many people have either limited or no access share market ppt free download land title and property rights in general are weak, constituting a major obstacle to development.

Under customary law, Zambians can apply to the traditional authority in the area fxcm trading station for mt4 in turn may allocate land for individual use over a limited period of time or for indefinite use, but without title of ownership.

The resulting limited access to land has serious implications for economic growth since banks require title of ownership to provide credit, dampening investment iri stock market research sites in india growth, and thereby slowing down poverty reduction. The main concern has been slow progress towards implementation of the decentralisation and pay reform programmes.

An audit conducted by PricewaterhouseCoopers at the initiative of the government noted some misreporting of earnings by some mining companies and the new government has called for the extractive industries to ensure beneficial gains for Zambians, including creating more jobs. The Environment Council of Zambia ECZ was set up in to manage environmental policy but it was criticised for failing to ensure compliance with regulatory requirements.

In June the ECZ was replaced by the Zambia Environmental Management Agency ZEMA which has a broader mandate to ensure environmental protection and proper management of natural resources. In the government began work on legislation to protect "whistle blowers" and transformed the anti-fraud and money-laundering unit into the much stronger and independent Financial Intelligence Unit.

However, the country has recorded improvements in some of social indicators. The primary school completion rate rose to More emphasis should go on improving quality and not just quantity of education, and access to post-secondary education and skills training.

A report on technical and literacy levels indicates that Zambia lags behind all its regional peers. The pattern for under-5 infant mortality is similar, showing a decline to per 1 live births in from incompared with a target of Zambia also faces a serious challenge in terms of maternal mortality, despite the decrease from deaths per live births in to in Improvement here requires training, oversight and incentives for midwives in conjunction with improved access to and monitoring of rural health posts, and curbing unsafe home-based birth practices.

Direct help for households needs to be more widely available in order to protect the most vulnerable from the adverse effects of poverty. The plan stresses the importance of social protection as both a relief for the poor while encouraging them to become engaged in the productive economy. Institutionally, the social protection sector advisory group operates under the supervision of the Ministry of Community Development. The work includes providing subsidised agriculture inputs to vulnerable but viable farmers, micro-credit funding for women and other vulnerable sectors of the community and a public works programme.

Recent reports suggest progress is being made in the basics of providing adequate food and improved health care. Key challenges are limited futures trading in sharekhan and inadequate funding while the increase in rural poverty presents an additional burden.

Zambia is a signatory to a number of protocols protecting women and girls and has established a gender ministry to address issues related to gender and development.

However, progress on gender equality has been slow. Inthis figure fell to Some achievements have been made, especially in primary education. The ratio of girls to boys in primary education improved from 0. Early marriages based on traditional cultural and social factors have deterred girls from continuing in school and the policy was designed to enable them to return to education.

About young people enter the labour market each year and with few employment opportunities the large number of unemployed youth is creating political and economic tensions in the country.

It is widely understood that growing youth disillusionment over unemployment was one of the reasons behind the defeat of the incumbent government in the last election. Obstacles to youth employment include the inability of the educational system to equip people with relevant skills required by the job market, high school dropout rates, a lack of entrepreneurial opportunities and poor access to labour market information for job seekers and employees.

The new government has made rs best money making f2p a priority to implement projects and programmes stressing creation of youth employment through entrepreneurship.

To address the issue of technical skills, the government reorganised the Zambia National Service into the Zambian Youth Training Service with a mandate to strengthen youth skills training. In the budget the government increased funding for education and skills development by Calls were heard for a review of the education system to tailor it towards an entrepreneurial system and for more tertiary institutions, nl forex mumbai loans and youth scholarships.

Establishment of Industrial Development Corporation IDC. Its initial authorized capital is K20 millions of which K10 million is already paid up using funds from the Privatisation Revenue Account as sanctioned by Section 39 Subsection 2 J of the Privatisation Act, Cap of the Laws of Zambia. President Sata has directed that a Sovereign Fund, which will initially be supported by the IDC after Parliament passes a statute to give effect to the Sovereign Fund be constituted with due dispatch.

Some of the balances of the Privatisation Revenue Account which are substantial will provide the initial capital stock of the Sovereign Fund. The Sovereign Fund will and should be an inescapable duty and obligation of a responsible nation.

Its focus is on developing labour-intensive industries and enterprises in the key areas of agriculture, construction, manufacturing, tourism, science and technology.

The role of a parastatal is to develop human resource capacity in Zambia, encourage transfer of skills from more developed economies. It will attract foreign investment into Zambia due to its capacity to show that certain investment areas are viable. And because IDC is a parastatal with Government backing and guarantees, it can bring into Zambia equipment and technology that the private sector would struggle to achieve those results.

The IDC will come with a new strategic vision and mandate to be an alternative engine of economic growth. The Government will role of bombay stock exchange in capital market in place viable management structures and systems and ensure that there is no political interference.

Zambia and Germany ink agro deal. Zambia and Germany have signed a Joint Declaration of Intent on a Bilateral Cooperation Project aimed at promoting sustainable and modern agriculture in the country. The Joint Declaration of Intent on the establishment of the agricultural demonstration and training centre on the premises of the Golden Valley Agricultural Research Trust GART was signed on the side-lines of the Global Forum for Food and Agriculture conference in Berlin.

The aim of the project is to provide sustained support of cereal and potato cultivation in Zambia through training and the professionalization of production systems. The establishment of the centre will enable farmers and technicians to receive hands-on training in modern agricultural engineering, sustainable cultivation techniques and good farm management [40]. The country is progressing well in terms of production of maize and that increased yield could be achieved with the acquisition of improved German technologies.

The bilateral agreement is aimed enhancing the capacity to support the farmers in accessing credit on an annual basis, provision of extension services, access to research and development of seeds, products and programmes such as conservation farming, and also to ensure that farmers have enough commodities that they can sell to how the new england colonies make money their standard of living.

Construction of new oil refinery plant. Maysen and Borowski Claymont Joint Venture MBCJV of Australia in partnership with Phoenix Material and Constructing Company will construct the new refinery with a capacity to process about five million metric tonnes of oil per annum.

The new refinery pipeline will triple the current national crude oil supply. Bwana Mkubwa Oil Refinery, which will be situated at the Sub-Sahara Gemstone Exchange SGE Industrial Park in Ndola is anticipated to employ over 13, jobs.

Once fully operational, the new refinery will be capable shorting a european put option formula processing up to five million metric tonnes of crude oil per annum. The construction of the project is expected to start in and if successful, the project will be one of the biggest infrastructure projects in Zambia.

The new refinery, which will stimulate the growth of other auxiliary industries, will also include the development of commercial entities, warehousing, dry port, container depot, a skills training centre, houses and a green space. The project will also include developing two new exporting lines to the Democratic Republic of Congo and Tanzania to provide efficient regional distribution of refined oil products. In the Government gave approval to conduct a bankable feasibility study.

The project is being developed in co-operation with a number of companies including Samsung Engineering of South Korea. Smallholder farmers receive support. ABOUT K2 million has been disbursed to how to earn fast gold in aqw smallholder farmers under the Bunjimi Asset plus programme, - aimed at enhancing productivity and value addition among the farmers.

ZNFU senior agribusiness manager Mwaka Kayula said, nine smallholder farmers have so far benefit from the programme. The Bunjimi Asset plus will increase capacity of smallscale farmers to service debt through improved bankable business plans and forward market contracts and will access financial services from NATSAVE bank.

Under the programme, farmers will obtain loans from the bank to purchase tractors, irrigation and treadle pumps, and other agricultural equipment. The value, crop diversification and mechanisation among smallholder farmers play a critical role in the development of agriculture sector. About 1, farmers are expected to benefit from the project by the end of because the ultimate goal is to empower the small-scale farmers so that they graduate to emergent farmers and eventually to commercial farmers.

ZNFU and NATSAVE are already processing loans for farmers planning to acquire diary animals and milk processing equipment [42]. The mining industry has choose stocks intraday trading the economic and social backbone of Zambia since the first major phase of exploitation of the Copper belt's Cu-Co deposits commenced in the early 's. Since that time a wide spectrum of other metalliferous and non-metalliferous resources have been discovered in Zambia and, although exploitation of these has been limited, they clearly demonstrate the considerable opportunities for further exploration and mining [43].

The Government has adopted a pragmatic mineral policy which is designed to enhance investment in the mining industry and to ensure the development of a self-sustaining minerals-based industry. The recent privatization of the copper mining industry, formerly managed under the parastatal umbrella of Zambia Consolidated Copper Mines Ltd ZCCMis a clear demonstration of this intent.

Enactment of this policy is being promoted by the Ministry of Mines and Minerals Development through the technical support available from its three constituent departments - Geological Survey, Mines Development and Mines Safety [44]. Key objectives of the Government's Mining Policy, published inare as follows: The policy is aimed in particular at encouraging private investment in exploration and in the development of new mines.

In addition to returning the major copper mines to the private sector, thus encouraging cost-effective management and greater exploitation of the enormous copper resources, the policy seeks to direct attention to the exploitation of the very diverse range of metalliferous deposits, industrial minerals, gemstones, and energy resources that are present throughout Zambia.

Ministry of Mines and Minerals Ways to make money as a freelance photographer. Policy decisions within the ministry are made by the Minister, assisted by the Deputy Minister.

The chief executive is the Permanent Secretary who directs four statutory departments - Geological Survey, Mines Development, Mines Safety and Headquarters, the latter being devoted to administrative matters [45]. In its role as the national depository for geological information the Geological Survey has accumulated a wealth of maps, publications, reports, and data generated by the Survey staff and also derived from external sources including exploration reports and international journals.

These are archived and maintained by the Technical Records office, Archive, and Library which comprise the Information Section. The Department is divided into four technical sections - Mining, Explosives, Machinery and Environment - which variously enforce the relevant legislative and statutory instruments, formulate new legislation and regulations, evaluate all aspects of safety in mining operations, appropriate bollinger bands buy sell technical advice and training, and offer exemptions from the relevant regulations where appropriate.

Key responsibilities for the Mines Development Department are the issuance of all prospecting, retention and mining licences, together with the monitoring of mining operations to ensure that development is in line with approved programmes of operations and in accordance with the Mines and Minerals Act. The Department also issues Gemstones Sales Certificates and undertakes reconnaissance surveys, demarcation of plots, placement of beacons and mine pit surveys.

In line with its stated Mining Policy, the Government of Zambia enacted new legislation - the Mines and Minerals Act - which greatly simplifies licensing procedures, places minimum reasonable constraints on prospecting and mining activities, and creates a very favourable investment environment, whilst allowing for international arbitration to be written into development agreements, should this be deemed necessary. A framework for responsible development has also been created through publication of the Environmental Protection and Pollution Control Environmental Impact Assessment Regulations, Three types of licence are available to the large-scale operator [46]: Similar rights are available to smaller work from home lpn jobs in va, but on a reduced scale.

Key steps in establishing a project as laid down by the regulations are: In all cases a Customs and Excise Declaration form has to be completed, usually accompanied by a letter of authorization from the Mines Development Department. Additional procedures have to be followed for different commodities: Zambia is internationally recognized as a major producer of copper and cobalt; in it ranked as the world's seventh largest producer of copper, generating 3. Congo which sources its Cu-Co ore from the strike-extension of Zambia's Copper belt mineralization.

Significant quantities of selenium Mining and the Economy. The balance of mining-sector earnings come from sales of gold, silver, and selenium, mostly sydneyforex pty ltd of copper mining, and from emerald sales [47]. The vulnerability of Zambia's economy due to its reliance on copper mining has been exposed in the very recent past by the falling copper price and by falling production as a result of limited re-investment in the mining industry.

However, the privatization process has already led to significant inflow of investment to the mining sector, and a reversal of fortunes is confidently predicted for the copper mining industry within the next years. Re-inforced currency rates ruble future production of additional metals and minerals, there is no doubt that the mining industry will continue to provide both a sound base and a stimulus for growth in the other sectors of the economy, leading to long-term prosperity.

Surcharges on mineral production compare hawkeye trading system free download favourably with most countries in terms of royalties and taxes, and a number of financial incentives have been created specifically to encourage investment in the mining industry.

Royalty payments may be deferred if the cash operating margin of a holder of a Large Scale Mining Licence falls below zero.

Relief from Income Tax. Any investment in mining, including prospecting, attracts deductions from income tax on the following expenditures: Relief from Other Surcharges.

A holder of a mining right is exempt from customs, excise and VAT duties in respect of all machinery and equipment including specialized motor vehicles required for exploration or mining activities. Zambia's diverse mineral endowment is entirely a function of the variety of geological terrains and the multiplicity of thermal and tectonic events that have overprinted and shaped these terrains.

The resulting geological domains each have specific metallogenic characteristics in terms of known mineral occurrences that can be successfully utilized to direct further exploration. Equally importantly, the understanding of the processes that formed these domains has reached a level at which lateral thinking and conceptual modelling can be used to generate important new exploration targets.

A wide range of known industrial minerals in Zambia include feldspar, silica sand, talc, barite, phosphate in carbonatite and syenitelimestone, clays mostly ball clay and brick claygraphite, and many varieties of possible dimension stone.

Sincecoal has been produced continuously by Maamba Collieries from the fault-controlled Karoo basins of southern Zambia. Production in was ,t but the open-pit mining operation has the potential to return to past production levels of ,t. Hydrocarbons Limited exploration for hydrocarbons to date has been unsuccessful but evaluation of existing data and re-interpretation of the sequence stratigraphy indicates significant potential in the lower and mid-Karoo sequences of the Luangwa and Mid-Zambezi graben.

The complex geology and multiplicity of tectono-thermal events reflect Zambia's somewhat unique position effectively sandwiched between the Kasai, Zimbabwe-Kaapvaal, and Tanzania cratons. Differential movements between these stable blocks, together with their buttressing effects, have played an important role in the geological evolution of the country and hence in the genesis of the country's mineral and energy resources.

Stratigraphy The oldest succession of rocks in the country, the Basement Supergroup, consists mostly of granitic gneisses and migmatites which are evident throughout eastern, central and southern Zambia, in places in-folded with meta-carbonate, meta-quartzite, and meta-pelite units. The Super group rocks are mostly younger than Ma.

The overlying meta-sedimentary Muva Supergroup generally exhibits a tectonized contact with the Basement sequences.

In central and eastern Zambia the sequence of meta-pelites and meta-quartzites is commonly medical transcription work from home in coimbatore and even imbricated with the Basement rocks, the two sequences being later folded to form the core of the Irumide Belt extending north-eastwards from Kabwe to Mpika, and also forming a major component of the Zambezi Belt south and east of Lusaka.

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Within the Bangweulu Block of northern Zambia the sedimentary sequence is very different, comprising a lower m-thick succession of cont-inental sediments rudites, arenites, quartzites and argillites - the Mporokoso Group, overlain by quartzites, hematitic sandstones, mudstones and minor conglomerates of the Kasama Formation which ranges in thickness from c.

Sedimentation commenced around Ma and ended c. The Katanga Supergroup overlies the Basement and Muva sequences with marked angular unconformity and spans an approximate time interval of Ma - Ma. The rocks are exposed throughout the Copperbelt and north-western Zambia, partially overlie the southern edge of the Bangweulu Block, and also occur within the Zambezi Belt south and east of Lusaka. The lower part of the almost exclusively sedimentary sequence is the economically important Mine Series Group which hosts the bulk of the copper-cobalt mineralization of the Copperbelt.

This sequence was deposited in response to a NE-directed marine incursion across a deeply dissected continental landscape, the lowest unit - the Lower Roan Formation - comprising conglomerate and aeolian sandstones succeeded by siliciclastic sediments and finally by argillites, dolostones and arenites.

The overlying Upper Roan is a predominantly dolomite-argillite sequence which is succeeded conformably by carbonaceous shales, argillite and minor carbonate rocks of the Mwashia Formation. This was followed by a thick sequence dominated by dolomitic limestones, shale, a further tillite and a fine shale-dominated unit. A poorly defined unit, the Kataba Group, comprising unmetamorphosed marine sandstones and mudstones, has been intersected by drilling beneath basal Karoo rocks and has been broadly dated as Ordovician-Silurian.

The extent of the unit is not known. Rocks of the Karoo Supergroup late Carboniferous to Jurassic occupy the rift troughs of the Mid-Zambezi, Luangwa, Luano-Lukusashi and Kafue valleys and also outcrop in western Zambia.

The Lower Karoo Group comprises a basal conglomerate, tillite and sandstone overlain unconformably by conglomerate, coal, sandstone and carbonaceous siltstones and mudstones the Gwembe Formationand finally fine grained lacustrine sediments - the Madumabisa Formation. The unconformably overlying Upper Karoo essentially comprises a series of arenaceous continental sediments and overlying mudstones capped by basalts of the Batoka Formation.

In western Zambia and within the Zambezi Valley, the Batoka basalts are unconformable overlain by up to m of continental sandstones and mudstones of Cretaceous age, and much of western Zambia is covered by aeolian sands and minor epiclastic sediments of Quaternary - to - Present age comprising the Kalahari Group. A number of major tectono-thermal events have affected Zambia and have often contributed directly to the accumulation of metals, minerals and even energy resources.

The earliest recognizable event in the region was the Ubendian Orogeny, c. Intrusive granitic magmatism accompanied the orogeny in the Choma-Kalomo Block Maand charnockitic granites were emplaced in the Basement-Muva terrain east of the Luangwa Valley at about Ma.

The Irumide Belt has been interpreted as a NW-facing, km-wide foreland folds and thrust belt resulting from NW-SE-directed crustal shortening. In the northern sector of the belt, this contraction was accommodated by the Luongo Fold and Thrust Zone near the southern margin of the Bangweulu Block and by the Shiwa Ngandu Fold. Shortening in the south-western part of the belt was taken up within the Mkushi Gneiss Complex, which has been interpreted as a "pop-up" structure.

The subsequent Lomamian and Lufilian Orogenies, the latter broadly equivalent to the continent-wide Pan-African Orogeny, were represented by a complex series of tectonic and thermal events in the approximate time interval - Ma. Two somewhat different domains were generated - the Lufilian Arc and the Zambezi-Mozambique Belts, separated by the Mwembeshi Shear Zone.

Key events have been recognized in the formation of these still poorly understood terrains: The final tectono-thermal event was the Karoo Rifting associated with the break-up of Gondwanaland during the Permian followed by opening of the proto-Indian Ocean in the Jurassic; and a final episode of rifting related to the development of the East African Rift system in late Cretaceous and early Tertiary times.

The Permian part time jobs for college students from home in coimbatore was accompanied by reactivation of the Mwembeshi Shear Zone.

The complex history of rifting in the region accounts for the marked variations in sedimentation within Zambia's rift valleys, culminating in the eruption of the late-Karoo Batoka basalts.

Zambia's amazingly wide spectrum of mineral resources spans a range of metals, particularly copper-cobalt and gold, gemstones, a variety of industrial minerals and potential energy resources - uranium, coal and hydrocarbons. Ranging in size from world-class operating mines to small prospects, the multiplicity and variety of resources demonstrate clearly the opportunities for further exploration and exploitation.

Copper Copper mineralization was first discovered at the turn of the century but large-scale production only commenced in the 's with the start-up of Roan Antelope Luanshya -followed rapidly by NkanaMufuliraand then Nchanga in [48]. Copper production exceeded t. However, the move to privatization of Zambia Consolidated Copper Mines ZCCM should halt this decline and, with a total mineral resource of at least two billion tonnes on the Copper belt alone, there is no doubt that copper and cobalt production will soon begin a dramatic upward trend.

In excess of one billion tonnes of ore c. The copper-cobalt mineralization is stratabound within arenites, shales and carbonate rocks of the lower-Katanga Mine Series Group. Copper resources have also been identified in the thrust zones of north-western Zambia which represent zones of detachment between Basement and Katanga sequences, and in western and central Zambia where shearing and intrusion emplacement through the lower Stochastic oscillator for intraday trading succession have generated a considerable number of lode, stockwork, breccia and skarn deposits.

Other types of deposit include the disseminated copper mineralization in the granites and aplites of the Mkushi area and copper-bearing stratiform sulphides in the Lusaka area. Gold Zambia has a history of gold mining on a relatively small scale, with the twenty larger deposits having produced slightly more than 2t of gold since modern mining began in The largest past producers are Dunrobin kg goldSasare kgand Matala kg ; Dunrobin has recently been re-opened by Reunion Mining and is scheduled to produce kg gold per annum.

More than gold occurrences does best buy price match overstock been reported throughout the country and some chimp stock broker these are currently being-re-evaluated.

Similar styles of mineralization have been recognized over a wide area to the north of Kabwe. More than gold occurrences have been recorded but most are only prospects; largest historical producers are Dunrobin kg and Matala kg in the Mumbwa area, Jessie kg in the Rufunsa area, and Sasare kg in eastern Zambia.

Dunrobin was re-opened by Reunion Mining in as an open-pit, heap-leach operation and is producing 50kg gold per month. The majority of the deposits are lode-type bodies associated with the Mwembeshi Shear Zone and related syntectonic intrusions.

Significant gold mineralization also occurs, variously with copper and uranium, in major thrust zones near the base of the Katanga succession Minor palaeo-placer gold has also been reported in the Mporokoso Group in the Bangweulu Block. Iron Substantial resources of iron are known in central and western Zambia, occurring as ironstones and lesser skarn deposits but have yet to be exploited.

Amongst other metalliferous occurrences reported are sedimentary and fracture-hosted manganese and orthomagmatic and shale-hosted nickel, together with tin and tungsten. Substantial resources of iron have been identified, occurring primarily as sedimentary ironstones in the lower-Katanga Mine Series successions of central and western Zambia. Small, high-grade skarn and replacement deposits are associated with Pan-African felsic and mafic intrusions that have penetrated the lower Katanga succession in western Zambia, particularly around the Hook Granite Complex, but such deposits have rarely been fully evaluated.

The stratabound mineralization comprises massive, breccia and replacement sulphides within carbonate rocks marking the transition from Lower Roan to Upper Roan.

Similar styles of mineralization at the same stratigraphic position, some copper-rich, are evident throughout the Kabwe area and northwards to Kapiri Mposhi. Carbonate-hosted Pb-Zn has also been recorded in Lower Roan limestones in the Copperbelt and in lower Kundelungu rocks in western Zambia. Stratabound, probably exhalative, Cu-Zn-Pb deposits occur in Basement and Muva sequences of south-eastern Zambia.

Manganese Occurrences are numerous but mostly small, occurring as tabular, probably stratiform exhalative, deposits within Basement and Muva sequences, and as supergene enrichments, either capping low-grade sedimentary accumulations or concentrated within sub-vertical fractures of limited vertical extent.

Sediment-hosted nickel deposits in Mwashia and Mine Series rocks of north-western Zambia are associated with gabbroic intrusions and often show evidence of hydrothermal enrichment.

Minor platinum group elements are produced as a by-product of copper-refining on the major Copperbelt mines. Small quantities of cassiterite have been recovered from complex quartz-muscovite-feldspar pegmatites of probable Irumide age in the Choma-Kalomo area in southern Zambia. Columbite-tantalite has also been extracted in very minor quantities.

Wolframite has been noted in pegmatite of the Choma Tin Belt, publicly traded stock tesoro lode-type scheelite-bismuth mineralization is associated with a two-mica granite of early Lufilian age at Unda Unda, 80km east of Lusaka.

Diamonds Alluvial diamonds have been reported throughout much of northern, north-eastern and western Zambia and in many places are accompanied by indicator minerals. Kimberlite and lamproite intrusions occur within and near to the western flank of the Luangwa River and also in southern Zambia but no diamond-bearing diatremes have yet been discovered.

Alluvial diamonds have been recovered throughout Zambia, accompanied in places by indicator minerals but, despite the discovery of a number of kimberlite and lamproite intrusions, the sources of the diamonds have yet to be found. Zambia's high-quality deep green emeralds are in demand world-wide and, sincehave been mined continuously on the southern margin of the Copperbelt where they are hosted by pegmatite bodies. Pegmatites are also common in eastern Zambia where they have been exploited for aquamarine and tourmaline.

Aquamarine and tourmaline are mined in the Lundazi and Nyimba areas of eastern Zambia where they occur in pegmatites that were broadly synchronous with the c. Amethyst is currently being mined in the Mwakambwiko Hills near Lake Kariba where it occurs in veins and stockworks generated during late-Karoo or post-Karoo tectonism. The gemstones are recovered exclusively from the Ndola Rural area of the southern Copper belt where they are hosted by Muva-age talc schists intruded by tourmaline- and phlogopite-bearing pegmatite bodies.

Zambia boasts a wide range of industrial minerals capable of underpinning the anticipated growth in the mining, manufacturing and agricultural sectors. Feldspar In recent years the demand for feldspar has been from local ceramic producers and also from Kapiri Glass Products Ltd. Production has mostly come from two pegmatite deposits - a 4m-thick body of alkali-feldspar-pegmatite containing minor muscovite and quartz near Siavonga and a 5m-thick, partially kaolinized, pegmatite at Shipingu, near Kapiri Mposhi.

Sands of various specifications occur throughout Zambia but the only occurrence to have been exploited is the deposit of high-quality glass sand at Kapiri Mposhi which was the basis for glass manufacture by Kapiri Glass Products Ltd. The sand is an unconsolidated eluvial deposit derived by the weathering of quartzites of the Muva Supergroup. Talc The current small demand for talc within Zambia is met partly by local production but good quality white talc for the pharmaceutical industry is imported.

Deposits in Zambia have not been extensively evaluated but range from talc derived during metamorphism of dolomites near Lusaka to a hydrothermally altered mafic to ultramafic intrusion, also in the Lusaka area, and talc schist occurring in the footwall of copper mineralization near Ndola. Barite A variety of deposit-types are known, the most significant being the vein and replacement bodies hosted by red shales and marls of the Mporokoso Group within the Luongo Fold and Thrust Zone of the Bangweulu Block.

Vein-type mineralization also occurs within the Irumide Belt and rare occurrences have been reported associated with the Hook Granite Complex and also hosted by Karoo sediments within the Mid-Zambezi Rift. Phosphate Apatite, the most important potential source of phosphate, occurs in significant concentrations in syenitic intrusions and carbonatite bodies. Significant syenite-hosted deposits include the apatite-quartz bodies of Chilembwe, near Petauke in eastern Zambia, and breccia and pegmatite bodies in syenite intrusions near the north-eastern margin of the Hook Granite Complex.

Carbonatites in Zambia are mostly related to Karoo-age rifts and very substantial low-grade apatite deposits have been noted in two of these - Kaluwe in the Rufunsa-Feira area and Nkombwa Hill at the northern end of the Luangwa Rift. Limestone Carbonate rocks are a common component of the Katanga Supergroup and also occur within the Basement Supergroup.

Limestone and dolomite are abundant in the area around Lusaka and these and other deposits in the Southern, North Western, Northern and Luapula Provinces have been identified as being suitable for agricultural use.

High-purity, low-MgO limestones are currently being exploited from the lower Katanga succession near Ndola on the Copperbelt. A very wide variety of potential dimension stones are present in Zambia but they have rarely been evaluated fully as to their suitability. They are mostly of igneous origin and include gabbroic and doleritic rocks of the Basement and Muva terrains in eastern and central Zambia, granites of the Mpika area in north-eastern Zambia, and the extensive granitic and charnockitic rocks of the Chipata area in eastern Zambia.

A very attractive pink and green, sodalite-rich, syenite occurrence has been exploited near Solwezi, and grey and white marbles are currently being mined for export on the western outskirts of Lusaka.

Clays A considerable number of deposits of ball clay and brick clay are known but they have rarely been subjected to bench tests and firing tests. Large deposits of ball clay occur at Solwezi and at Kasanka, 60km north of Serenje, and kaolinite-rich clays have been recorded at Masuku in southern Zambia and near Shiwa Ngandu.

Brick clays are exploited at an artisanal level throughout Zambia. Zambia is favoured with considerable resources of feldspar Pan-African pegmatite bodiessilica sand Muva-age quartziteslimestone mostly lower Katangaand a variety of rock types potential how to become rich in indian stock market for dimension stone.

Numerous occurrences of ball clay and brick clay are evident throughout the country but the quality of the clays has rarely been thoroughly investigated. Good quality talc has yet to be discovered but the focus of interest would be on hydrothermally altered ultramafic rocks and on metamorphosed dolomites in the Lusaka and Copperbelt areas. Major targets for barite exploration would be vein and replacement deposits in the Luongo Fold and Thrust Belt of the Bangweulu Block.

Any search for phosphate apatite would necessitate re-evaluation of the carbonatite-hosted deposits associated with the Karoo-age rifts of southern, central, and eastern Zambia. Medium- to high-grade graphite deposits are confined to the high-grade metamorphic terrains of eastern Zambia.

These include graphite, gypsum, kyanite and asbestos, with moderate resources of graphite having been identified at a number of occurrences in the high-grade metamorphic terrains of eastern Zambia. A major fluorite deposit has been defined at Sianyolo in the Mid-Zambezi Valley. Uranium Three important types of uranium occurrence have been recorded in Zambia: The Karoo occurrences comprise presumed detrital concentrations, up to ppm U, in the Escarpment Grit Formation, and fracture-controlled autunite-torbernite-pitchblende in the same arenitic units of the Mid-Zambezi Rift.

Uranium occurrences associated with the Copperbelt mineralization variously consist of pitchblende, coffinite, and brannerite, or meta-torbernite and other secondary minerals concentrated near the base of the copper mineralization or within the footwall rocks immediately underlying the orebodies. Uranium mineralization in the Basement domes is variously accompanied by copper and gold and almost invariably occurs in kyanite-bearing schists which are now known to represent major thrust zones developed along the Basement-Katanga contact and propagated up-sequence northwards and eastwards.

The Lumwana Malundwe deposit in the Mwombezhi Dome, as an example, contains some t of U3O8, in addition to at least Coal Zambia possesses substantial iri stock market research sites in india resources and has been producing coal continuously since The bulk of the coal has come from the Maamba coal mine, an open-cast operation in the southern part of the country near Lake Kariba. The Maamba deposit and other known coal occurrences are confined exclusively to the lower-Karoo Gwembe Formation, within the series of fault-controlled basins that comprise the Mid-Zambezi Rift Valley.

The Maamba deposit occurs within the Kazinze Basin but coal seams have also been discovered in the adjacent basins. Thin coal seams and carbonaceous shales have also been identified in the lower Karoo Gwembe Formation of the Luangwa and Luano-Lukusashi Valleys and in the eastern part of the Barotse Basin in western Zambia.

Additional coal resources are most likely to be found in the fault-bounded Karoo basins of the Mid-Zambezi Rift, particularly in the Mulungwa Coalfield, the area between the Mulungwa and Siankondobo Coalfields, and in the Siambabala area. Some limited potential also exists in the Luangwa and Luano Valleys. Hydrocarbon Two exploration programmes by Mobil and Placid Oil between and failed to discover oil but, of two boreholes within the Luangwa Rift Valley, one was terminated before intersecting the most favourable reservoir horizons.

Considerable thicknesses of littoral and continental sediments underlain by carbonaceous rocks with oil-generating potential are present within the Karoo-age graben of both the Luangwa and Mid-Zambezi Valleys. Exploration The mining legislation enacted in and favourable investment environment has created a high level of interest both maplestory how to earn money guide existing mining operations and in the exploration potential.

Companies active in the mid include Anglo American, AvMin, Billiton, Caledonia Mining, Cyprus Amax, Equinox Resources, Falconbridge, Phelps Dodge, RTZ Mining and Zamgold. Development Although still to be completed privatization of ZCCM has led to a flurry of interest in the mining sector and an encouraging level of physical investment. Another exciting development has been the opening up of the old Dunrobin goldmine by Reunion Mining as an open pit heap leach operation which poured its first gold late in Production of 50kg of gold per month for at least three years is anticipated and the potential for proving further ore in the area is reported to be high.

The complex geological evolution of Zambia, together with the abundance and diversity of mineral deposits and other natural resource deposits, are pointers towards the considerable potential for the discovery of new occurrences through exploration based on empirical models driven by known deposits and exploration formulated on conceptual models.

Gold The great majority of gold deposits in Zambia are mesothermal lode deposits veins and more dispersed occurrences in brittle and brittle-ductile shear zones. Most are localized within structures related to the Mwembeshi Shear Zone in central Zambia. This major inter-cratonic shear zone was undoubtedly trans-crustal in vertical extent and clearly acted as an important conduit for fluid flow and magma emplacement. It also exhibits a history of multiple reactivation throughout the Lomamian and Lufilian Pan-African Orogenies c.

Consequently there was considerable potential for the genesis of substantial lode deposits, particularly where dilational zones releasing bends, dilatational jogs, etc. Significant skarn and breccia deposits were probably developed adjacent to syntectonic granitoidal and even syenitic intrusions associated with the shear zone although to date only relatively small occurrences have been identified in the Mumbwa area around the Hook Granite Complex and satellitic intrusions.

A similar prospectivity can be assigned to the poorly-known Kapiri Mposhi - Kipushi Shear Zone and adjacent NNE-trending zones of deformation. In eastern Zambia, key targets related to the Mwembeshi Shear Zone include areas where it traverses the restricted occurrences of volcanosedimentary rocks eg. Sasare area and also the offset zones related to the West Mvuye and Chindeni Dislocations, the former appearing to have been a focus for fluid flow and wallrock alteration and the latter as it also traverses mafic volcanic rocks.

Within the Zambezi Belt south of the Mwembeshi Shear Zone, thrusting and faulting of the complex Basement-Muva-Katanga terrain was accompanied by widespread de-watering, resulting in the genesis of a considerable number of gold prospects, screening of which could pinpoint optimum potential in terms of host structure and country rocks.

In north-eastern Zambia a similar lode-gold potential, not yet investigated, exists within the Luongo Fold and Thrust Zone, the Chambeshi Fold and Thrust Zone, and the Shiva Ngandu Fold Zone, where leaching of Basement rocks and de-watering, quite possibly on a massive scale during the Irumide-age crustal shortening, could have created conditions favourable for gold metallogenesis. The minor occurrences of placer gold within the lower Mporokoso Group littoral sediments of the Bangweulu Block have some similarities to Witwatersrand-type mineralization and merit a basin-wide evaluation.

Copper Combined reserves and resources of copper-cobalt ore in operating mines of the Copper belt exceed two billion tonnes and these have mostly been delineated for exploitation after privatization of the industry has been completed. Somewhat similar styles of copper mineralization, variously containing gold, uranium, and cobalt, are evident in the Domes Region to the west of the Copper belt and are attractive exploration targets.

Recognition that a number of these deposits are hosted by thrust zones, however, offers greater opportunities for locating deposits at higher elevations within the Katanga sequence than normally anticipated. Precious-metal enrichment is also more probable in such zones, and manto-type copper-gold deposits may be developed in adjacent carbonate and shale units.

Recognition of thrust-hosted copper mineralization also encourages critical evaluation of the established synsedimentary or syndiagenetic model for the Copper belt mineralization in the search for new deposits.

Widespread scapolitization of the Katanga sequence in the Domes Region attests to another phase of hydrothermal activity, involving NaCl-brines probably derived by dissolution of evaporites, and the occurrence of copper enrichment 0.

Vein, breccia, and skarn deposits of copper are likely to be developed in any area where the copper-rich lower Katanga succession has been overprinted by faulting or intruded by felsic to mafic bodies, features particularly evident in central and western Zambia.

The regional coincidence of evaporites n the Lower Roangranitic intrusions, widespread scapolitic alteration, and Cu Fe -Co-Au-U mineralization also offer the intriguing possibility for the occurrence of deposits belonging to the enigmatic Fe-oxide REE-Cu-Au-U spectrum of deposit-types which includes, amongst many other, Olympic Dam.

The granitic association of copper in the Irumide Belt near Mkushi also merits a careful re-evaluation of the genesis and potential of this style of mineralization. Copper-bearing massive sulphide deposits of possible exhalative origin discovered in the Lusaka area and south-eastern Zambia point to additional targets for copper exploration.

Other Base Metals and Rare Metals. Zinc and lead deposits discovered to date are hosted entirely by carbonate rocks occurring stratigraphically at the Lower Roan - Upper Roan transition. Considerable potential remains in the Kabwe area, and the Katanga-age carbonate sequences northwest of Mumbwa offer a similar potential. The migration of NaCl-rich brines, indicated by the distribution of scapolite in north-western Zambia, could have led to extensive mobilization of Pb and Zn and the subsequent genesis of vein and replacement deposits in lower-Katanga carbonate rocks and even in overlying Kundelungu carbonate units.

The common occurrence of vein and replacement deposits of barite within the early Proterozoic sequences of the Bangweulu Block, where caught up in the Luongo Fold and Thrust Zone, also suggest the activity of NaCl-enriched brines and thus imply that conditions heretoo may have been favourable for the transport and precipitation of Pb and Zn. Substantial resources of iron have been identified, mostly in lower Katanga successions, and the requirement here is for thorough evaluation of known deposits within the context of potential demand from a burgeoning Zambian industrial and manufacturing sector and a wider demand throughout central Africa.

Manganese occurrences also are known but there is potential for the discovery of further supergene-enriched deposits throughout the Muva terrains of northern Zambia. No major layered intrusions have been identified in Zambia but the mostly likely hosts for orthomagmatic nickel deposits are gabbroic intrusions south and east of Lusaka and the possible faulted extensions of the Great Dyke near Mpala Gorge in the southern part of the country.

Some of the sediment-hosted occurrences of metal associated with gabbroic bodies in north-western Zambia also have modest potential. The tin -tantalum potential lies in a thorough re-evaluation of the Choma Tin Belt in southern Zambia and in detailed prospecting of the pegmatitic areas of eastern Zambia.

Syntectonic and post-tectonic granitic magmatism associated with the Irumide Orogeny in north-eastern Zambia may have led to tin and tungsten enrichment in the Chambeshi Fold and Thrust Zone and Shiwa Ngandu Fold Zone. Diamonds The abundance of diamonds and indicator minerals in Zambia highlight the considerable exploration potential.

The most favourable terrains are the stable cratonic Bangweulu Block and possibly the Kabompo area of western Zambia where alluvial diamonds are particularly abundant. The rift-related kimberlites and associated rocks of eastern Zambia have limited potential as they were probably derived from younger, locally diamond-depleted, mantle. Emeralds Systematic exploration of the Ndola Rural area utilizing a combination of radiometric surveys and soil geochemistry, supported by detailed mapping, offers considerable potential for the discovery of additional deposits of the high-quality gemstones.

Uranium The greatest potential for uranium appears to be vein and disseminated mineralization hosted by Lower Roan and Upper Roan sequences and most commonly occurring within the footwall rocks immediately underlying some of the copper orebodies of the Copperbelt and Domes Region.

Calcrete deposits within the basal sandstones of the Kalahari sequence in western Zambia may be analogous to the calcrete deposits of Namibia and thus merit investigation. Hydrocarbon The petroleum potential of Zambia can be considered unexplored. The Luangwa and Mid-Zambezi graben have a favourable history of lower-Karoo hydrocarbon generation and upper-Karoo development of structural traps during rifting.

Potential reservoir units occur in the lower-Karoo Luwumbu Formation and upper-Karoo Escarpment Grit in the luangwa graben and in the Siankondobo and Gwembe Formations of the lower Karoo in the Mid-Zambezi graben. THE CHAMBER OF MINES. The Chamber of Mines of Zambia is registered as an association for mining employers, be they large mining companies or single employers. It was originally formed in September as the Northern Rhodesia Chamber of Mines.

It operated until when the Copper Industry Service Bureau CISB replaced it. The Chamber of Mines was re-established in after the privatisation of the mining assets were completed [49]. The Policy Making Body of the Chamber of Mines of Zambia is the Council whose composition is as below: Other Class B Members may be elected if in the opinion of Council, their capacity and technical capability warrants individual representation.

One representative elected by Class C Members jointly from their number. One representative elected by Associate Members jointly from amongst their number.

The Chamber of Mines in Zambia was originally formed in September as the Northern Rhodesia Chamber of Mines. However, with the nationalisation of the mining industry the necessity for the Chamber of Mines fell away. The Chamber of Mines was re-established in after the privatisation of the mining assets were completed. The Objectives for which the Chamber of Mines of Zambia has been established are detailed in the Constitution. The main role of the Chamber of Mines of Zambia CMZ is advocacy in creating synergies.

CMZ aims to influence policy in the mining sector to reflect the vision and dreams of its members as well as to promote economic growth in Zambia. CMZ further seeks to create stakeholders linkages with various players in the country and abroad with a view to establishing productive partnership that will help realize its full potential as a central organ in the mining industry in Zambia.

The Zambia—China Cooperation Zone ZCCZ was the first Chinese economic and trade co-operation zone to be established in Africa. The project emerged from converging interests on both sides: The policy briefing analyses how the zone came into being, its achievements and the current challenges it faces.

It highlights a number of shortcomings at the implementation level that need to be addressed urgently, by both Chinese investors and Zambian authorities, if the ZCCZ is to move beyond low-skilled labour employment and resources supply [50].

For decades China has provided support in vital sectors such as agriculture, healthcare, education and infrastructure. However, it was only in the s that the commercial dimension of the relationship finally gained momentum.

By the end ofChina was the second-largest destination for Zambian copper exports. Likewise Chinese investment flows to Zambia have intensified significantly over the past decade. China is presently the third- largest investor in the country. The establishment of the ZCCZ. The idea of establishing a special economic zone SEZ ostensibly surfaced ininitiated by Non-Ferrous Metals Corporation Africa NFCA.

The NFCA approached the Zambian government with a proposal to set up an industrial park for copper processing in Chambishi.

Lusaka responded to the idea with great enthusiasm. That same year, China announced its intention to establish three to five economic and trade co-operation zones ETCZs in Africa as an instrument to promote economic development within the framework of the Forum on China—Africa Cooperation. Demonstrating the high importance of the project for both parties, President Hu Jintao and late President Levy Mwanawasa officially inaugurated the ZCCZ in February In JanuaryPresident Rupiah Banda and the Chinese Minister of Commerce inaugurated a subsection of the ZCCZ Lusaka East near Lusaka International Airport.

The CNMC, the formal developer, administers the zone through ZCCZ Development Limited, a subsidiary created for that purpose and registered in Zambia. The ZCCZ has head offices in Kitwe and Lusaka, and is in charge of developing the zone the Chambishi and Lusaka East subsections. Its responsibilities range from general planning and co-coordinating on-site construction to attracting investors.

The ZCCZ is also responsible for liaising with and providing quarterly reports to the Zambia Development Agency, the government body responsible for co-coordinating all MFEZs.

The Chambishi ZCCZ occupies an area of Set in a mining area, the zone aims to channel investment primarily into non-ferrous metals metallurgy copper and cobalt and to process by-products including electrical wire and cable, mine equipment, construction equipment, chemical products, fertilizers, and pharmaceuticals and provide supporting services such as storage, transportation and housing.

Production is aimed at supplying the local and regional markets. The East Lusaka ZCCZ covers an area of 5. Taking advantage of its proximity to the airport facilities, this subsection was designed to work as an international commercial hub. It aims to create a light industry cluster manufacturing, assembly and packaging of goods that is connected to non-ferrous metals household appliances as well as other sectors garment and food-processingwholesale facilities, logistics and real estate.

Agreement details and preferential policies. The ZCCZ agreement was negotiated between the CNMC supported by the Chinese Ministry of Commerce, the Association of Chinese SEZ and the local embassy on the Chinese side and the Zambia Development Agency ZDAthe Ministry of Commerce, Trade and Industry and the Ministry of Finance on the Zambian side, within the framework of the MFEZ Act. According to the ZCCZ management, the land lease is for 76 years in Chambishi and 80 years in Lusaka East.

Secrecy surrounding the negotiations has resulted in strong criticism of the agreement and a widespread belief that the land was given free of charge. Although both the ZDA and the ZCCA management have denied this, [56] the amount paid by the Chinese remains undisclosed and is believed to be very low.

The preferential policies to be implemented inside the zone have been far less controversial, as they follow closely the incentives stated in the MFEZ Act. Investment incentives in the Chambishi and East Lusaka ZCCZs are the same.

The developer is responsible for providing the on-site infrastructure, including roads; telecommunications; electricity and water supply; and facilities for administration, commerce, exhibitions and training. Although designed to attract primarily Chinese private capital, the zone is open to other foreign investors as well as local entrepreneurs. All foreign investors are required to register in Zambia. When driving inside the zone there is little more to see than the main gate, a smelter, the administration building, basic roads, a power supply station and a couple of buildings under construction.

The on-site infrastructure phase 1 is only now at the end ofnearing completion. The master plan has been designed to accommodate 50 to 60 companies. Most of these can be traced back to the CNMC, as a significant number of the investors are subsidiaries of or companies affiliated with the CNMC. Most of the remaining companies are Chinese construction companies carrying out infrastructure projects in the zone.

They have registered inside the zone to enjoy the incentives it provides. According to ZCCZ Development Limited, negotiations are underway with a few more investors, including local entrepreneurs. The biggest showpiece inside the zone is the copper smelter, recruiting nearly half of the 6 employees working inside the zone of whom are Chinese.

Almost three years after its launching, the Lusaka East ZCCZ, where 13 jobs are expected to be created, is still at an early stage of infrastructure construction both on site and off site. Nonetheless, there are already interested entrepreneurs and the subsection is expected to start receiving investors by April Although five years have passed since its launching, the Chambishi ZCCZ is only partially operational and struggling to produce expected benefits for the domestic economy.

Some sectors of civil society have criticized the slow pace of development of the Chambishi ZCCZ, which has been under construction for five years.

Although it is far too early to write off the ZCCZ as a failed venture, major challenges should be identified and tackled. Currently the existing obstacles seem to be related more to implementation than to policy and design.

The main implementation challenge seems to be the poor condition of infrastructure surrounding the ZCCZ, particularly in the remote area of the copper belt Province. Although there is a transportation network in place — in the form of a national road and railway — it needs to be rehabilitated and extended. The current state of the network seriously compromises not only supply to the zone but also product distribution to national and regional markets, a key factor for the success of any SEZ.

Another major obstacle is the lack of a cohesive absorbent regulating frame [1] to ensure the necessary domestic spill overs, such as transfer of expertise and technology and integration of the domestic private sector. Local entrepreneurs feel left out because the investment threshold has been set too high.

Local suppliers also fear this will be a missed opportunity. The loose regulations on local content enable investors to choose their supply sources. Owing to language and culture barriers and the much cheaper options back home, Chinese investors tend to rely on their own supply chains. Despite several pleas by the Miners Suppliers Association to establish a framework to ensure their participation in the process, Lusaka has made no progress in this regard so far.

A further important challenge is to make the ZCCZ process less secretive and elitist with the presidency and Chinese government being the sole interlocutors to date to better inform and integrate local stakeholders. Local entrepreneurs, civil society and communities seem to know little about the ZCCZ and its goals. The zone is therefore largely regarded as a Chinese enclave, resulting in misapprehension among the general public. Although these challenges may apply to all Zambian MFEZs, there are also obstacles of a more abstract nature that are specific to the ZCCZ.

These include fundamental differences in work ethics, business culture and the language barrier. These differences have been particularly problematic when it comes to labour issues. The stipulation of Zambian law that most labour be hired locally has placed a large pool of local workers under Chinese management. This has created serious misunderstandings, [59] mostly owing to a large gap between Chinese labour practices including longer hours, lower salaries and lower safety standards and local work ethics, [1] being shaped primarily by western standards.

Other challenges include the low returns for the host government in the early stages of the ZCCZ project and the difficulty being experienced in bringing new investors on board. Post privatization expectations and disappointment [60]. In earlythe government announced a new tax regime that would raise taxes on mining companies. Local regulatory capacity has not kept pace with the rapid acceleration in mining sector investment.

These shortfalls in regulation have added impetus to the calls for reform. High on the agenda are proposals for new licensing procedures, increased resources, and limitations on government interference. However, progress has been stalled. The immediate impact on the Zambian mining sector was significant. Forecasts for the production of finished copper in halved, from 1 to kilo tonnes, and about a third of directly employed mineworkers were made redundant.

Sudden policy reversals represent a significant risk for firms reliant on highly sophisticated but fickle institutional investors. Thus, when the crisis hit, many were already reconsidering their investments. However, outward FDI from China continued to grow. In May NFCA, competing against Vedanta Resources and the Luanshya Mineral Resources consortium, acquired Luanshya Copper Mines, which was being sold as a direct result of the low copper prices. The nature and implications of investor diversity.

These variations cover involvement with home governments, embeddedness in international capital markets, and the business culture developed by each company over time. The government is rewarded by large loans from China.

Chinese companies also enjoy an advantage in raising capital. For most firms, raising debt capital on international markets is increasingly associated with regulatory pressures.

Moreover, firms listed on stock markets must report audited financial accounts prepared to international accounting standards. Again, the informal norms and practices of Chinese companies are distinct in ways that affect regulatory compliance. Moreover, segregated managerial practices and language problems increase the propensity for dangerous mistakes.

How diversity undermines reform. However, where investors follow different standards and practices, regulators cannot rely on consensus. Firms that already have adequate reporting and control systems, like most of the Western mining companies, need not fear that regulatory reform will impose higher compliance costs. However, companies that do not have such systems in place are unlikely to support stricter standards.

What should be relatively straightforward bureaucratic regulatory policymaking and enforcement becomes politicised. For example, a mines safety department official divulged that the ministry of mines was resisting plans for a more independent regulatory agency because it does not wish to relinquish control.

SAII A POLICY BRIEFING. The recent crisis showed African governments just how sensitive private investment can be to the vagaries of international capital markets and a global downturn. Differences between Chinese and Western companies in practice and standards can impede their agreement on regulatory reform.

For example, the government rejected donor proposals to involve external consultants in assessing bids, and failed to disclose its reasons for awarding the Luanshya Copper Mines to NFCA. If Zambian copper is to support economic and social development, the government must strengthen and clarify the mandates of the regulatory agencies involved in the mining sector. This can be done only if policymakers become less reliant on collaboration with the mining companies.

BANK OF ZAMBIA -BEFORE CENTRAL BANK. A semblance of central banking started in Zambia through the establishment in of the Salisbury Harare based Southern Rhodesia Currency Board. Its jurisdiction extended to Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland because of a monetary agreement that existed between Southern Rhodesia and these territories.

Inthe Southern Rhodesia Currency Board was renamed the Currency Board of Rhodesia and Nyasaland when its ownership changed from the Southern Rhodesia government to the Federal government of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. Currency boards are not central banks and they do not offer banking services. Their sole function, in contrast to the multiple functions of central banks, is to issue currency.

In the case of the Central African Currency Board, and its predecessor they issued the Central African pounds which were percent backed by pound sterling reserves in London. In other words, if the territories' foreign exchange reserves rose, the Board increased its issue of local currency. If they declined, the local currency issued also had to be reduced.

With time the Currency Boards existence was hotly debated with some people saying that it needed to be replaced by a central bank. At the time, one of the popular views held by economists was that monetary policy could play a direct role in promoting economic growth primarily through credit expansion. The strict rules on monetary creation under the currency board, which made it conditional on developments in the balance of payments, did not accommodate discretionary credit expansion.

In general, it was also considered more preferable to have a central bank which could conduct monetary policy and counter unfavorable cyclical developments. Another major criticism that was made on the currency board was that the system for issuing currency under it imposed a heavy opportunity cost on the economy. Since the domestic currency on issue required percent pound sterling cover, the utilization of foreign reserves to import capital for development was restricted. In one important aspect, there is an important lesson to be learnt from the currency board arrangement.

Firstly, it was cheap to administer. This was because it was a tiny organization. Secondly and perhaps more important, monetary restraint was much easier to establish under the currency board arrangement because government borrowing, the usual source of monetary expansion in most countries, was not allowed. Maintaining low inflation rates is therefore much simpler compared to modern central banking which permits government to print money for spending.

That is why in the recent years many governments are moving away from borrowing from their central banks. With the loosening of trade restraints, the gap between rich and poor has only widened. At the same time, the government is working to increase foreign investment in the country, while national priorities such as education and health care declined in importance. Concrete blocks and tin roofs—once provided by the government for palace construction within the villages—became a symbol of wealth and prestige.

If a family did well financially, they would attempt to copy this construction fashion. In small cities where electricity is available, appliances such as refrigerators, stoves and especially televisions and video cassette recorders are an indication of wealth. In all communities, a vehicle is an obvious indicator of wealth and success.

In the cities, foreign imports are frequent sights on the streets. An individual's house is also a symbol of wealth and success.

In the cities, large houses with pools and manicured gardens enclosed in a large fence can be found. In the villages, a family's homestead reflects wealth through the number of structures, particularly if those structures include granaries, which hold a family's maize harvest. The Establishment of Central Bank. As the view grew stronger that a currency board was inappropriate, the Bank of Rhodesia and Nyasaland was established in March, It was equipped with the full powers of a conventional central Bank such as conducting monetary policy, banker to government and commercial banks, manager of foreign exchange reserves and so on.

The bank was also empowered to lend to the territorial and the Federal governments up to a limit based on their expected revenues in that fiscal year [63]. The Bank of Zambia was established to take over from the Bank of Northern Rhodesia on the 7th of August, although its Act was only passed in June, The Bank of Northern Rhodesia was itself constituted from the Lusaka branch established in September, of the Bank of Rhodesia and Nyasaland after it broke up together with the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland on the 31st of December, The Bank started operations with about staff organized around only two departments, namely the Chief Cashier's or General Manager's department and the Secretary's department.

The former was responsible to the Governor for monetary policy implementation, currency issue, banking, government securities, exchange control and foreign exchange management. The Secretary was responsible for personnel, administration, internal auditing and the Board. With time, the number of departments at the Bank started to increase. One of the earliest to be established was the Research Department in The Operations Department was created inand later, especially in the s, the pace accelerated when other departments such as Personnel and Administration Exchange Control.

Import and Export Control, Estate and Properties all in were created. They were followed in by Banking and Currency, Small Scale Industries, Inspection and in by National Debt, Transport, and Government Securities. The increase in the number of departments at the Bank partly reflected the increased demand on the functions which it had to perform, most of which centered on administering government imposed regulations such as exchange controls and import and export controls.

In turn there was higher demand by the Bank on support services for these core activities. In addition, however, it is also true that the Bank, like many other organizations both inside and outside Zambia then, did not make hard distinctions between core and peripheral responsibilities and, hence, utilize resources accordingly.

To give a concrete example, it was an accepted practice in Zambia that employers should find accommodation for their employees and in some cases, even furnish that accommodation. Institutions therefore acquired substantial property which required manpower and organization to manage. In some cases there were economic arguments, which were considered sound then, which led to organizational expansion.

This was an acceptable position at the time in the developing world and one of its strongest proponents among practitioners was the Reserve Bank of India.

Applied to Zambia, it included the establishment of a department for Small Scale Industries and, later, a credit guarantee scheme. The expansion of the functions of the Bank saw a rise in the number of staff from byto 1 in and to 1 in The Bank premises therefore had to be extended to accommodate the numbers.

The new building currently corporate head office opened in while the Regional office in Ndola opened in Annex buildings were subsequently added to Lusaka and Ndola. This expansion resulting from this extension of functions was unfortunately, not underpinned by a strong organizational structure.

The Structure of the Bank has evolved over time more in response to staffing factors than the real needs of the Bank. One major cause for this has been the extreme rapid turnover of Governors. Sincethere have been ten appointments to the post excluding the current Governor over a period of 28 years making an average tenure of 2. With instability at the top, continuity and strategic planning for the future were bound to suffer. The Changing Roles of Central Bank.

The Bank of Zambia Act of and its subsequent amendments charge the institution with the usual central bank responsibilities such as being banker to government, issuer of currency, manager of foreign exchange reserves, controller of commercial banks' liquidity and with responsibilities for the formulation and implementation of monetary policy. Although maintaining price stability is referred to in the Act as one of the Bank's objectives, it was not considered with any particular emphasis in practice.

This was not unique to Zambia. Many other central banks followed the received wisdom of the times regarding the possibility of a tradeoff between inflation and employment - the Phillips Curve idea which stipulates that higher levels of employment could be attained if higher inflation rate could be tolerated.

The thinking at the Bank of Zambia - and at many other central banks - was that putting special emphasis on the central bank's objective of maintaining price stability was focusing the function of a central bank much too narrowly.

Interpreting its position correctly the Bank of Zambia acquired an equity stake in the Development Bank of Zambia and in the Zambia National Commercial Bank. At one time, thought was even given to the possibility of establishing and running a commercial farm.

Meanwhile in the major central banks of the world, the idea that the main role of central banks should be the maintenance of price stability without which a stable macro-economic environment was not possible, was gaining ground.

It was also increasingly being felt that there was little else that a central bank can do to promote economic prosperity and attempting to do so through easy money just led to higher inflation. As a result of this realization, Central Banks started to re-orientate their activities accordingly. This new view on the appropriate role for central banks is only now beginning to be accepted.

Inthe Movement for Multiparty Democracy MMD came to power, replacing the United National Independence Party UNIP which had ruled for 27 years. The new government's priorities were the restoration of economic future growth and employment to the Zambian economy. Liberalizing the economy and thereby allow market forces a greater role in the allocation of resources was to be the main means of achieving this.

Price controls were abolished, as were subsidies on all consumer items. Macroeconomic management in Zambia has not been the same since. Although the ultimate economic objective has remained the same, namely growth and employment, it is now generally accepted that investment and subsequently growth, is unlikely to take place if the economy remains characterized by macroeconomic instability such as high inflation, shortage of foreign exchange, scarcities of commodities and so on.

Consequently, from the emphasis has been on creating a stable macroeconomic environment as a prelude to sustainable economic growth. The government's focus on price stability as a key contribution to future economic growth prospects has paused a new but welcome challenge for the Bank.

Hence, for example, although it reluctantly got involved in things like providing credit to parastatal organizations; it has begun to re-orient its activities towards meeting the core objective of maintaining price stability and ensuring a sound financial system.

The Board of the Bank of Zambia is composed of the Governor, who is the Chairperson, and six other Directors appointed by the Minister of Finance and National Planning from among persons with professional or academic experience in business or financial matters and who are not officials or employees of the Bank.

All Directors of the Board are non-executive directors. The Secretary to the Treasury is an ex-officio member of the Board and without power to vote. The Secretary to the Treasury also does not count for a quorum. The Vice Chairperson is elected by the Board from among the members of the Board.

Directors of the Board are appointed for a period of three years and are eligible to be reappointed for another three years. The Board is the overall authority in which all the power of the bank are vested.

It is responsible for formulation of the Bank of Zambia policy. Since its inception the Bank of Zambia has gone through various changes in its organizational structure. Overtime, this has resulted into an organizational structure which has become more focused on the core activities of the central bank.

Furthermore the Bank has shed off staff in areas where outsiders could easily be contracted to provide the same services more satisfactorily. The areas now being contracted to external bodies include: As a result of the restructuring exercise, the Bank has seen the total number of staff fall from 1, to well below But while more such functions have been dropped, others more critical in the new liberalized environment have emerged.

These new areas are mainly in the policy making arena. The Bank of Zambia is the authority by law mandated to issue Zambian Currency banknotes and coins as legal tender. This is according to section number 4[2] of the Bank of Zambia Act [64]. Legal tender comprises of banknotes and coins issued by the Bank of Zambia for circulation in the Republic of Zambia.

The Zambian currency is known as the Zambian Kwacha and Ngwee where Ngwee is equal to K1. Zambia currently has nine banknotes and five coins in circulation. K50, K20, K10, K5, K1, K, K, K50, K20 banknotes K10, K5, K1, 50N and 25N coins.

The general height of the land gives Zambia a more pleasant climate than that experienced in most tropical countries. There are three seasons - cool and dry from May to August, hot and dry from September to November, warm and wet from December to April. Only in the Valleys of the Zambezi and Luangwa is there excessive heat, particularly in October and, in the wet season, a high humidity. In the warm wet season, frequent heavy showers and thunderstorms occur, followed by spells of bright sunshine.

Plants grow profusely and rivers and streams fill up almost overnight. During the cool dry season, night frosts may occur in places sheltered from the wind. The countryside dries up gradually and grass fires, fanned by high winds are a feature of this time of the year. In depressions, radiation occurs on cloudless nights. Temperatures rise high during the hot, dry season but new leaves appear on the trees before the start of the rains and new grass brightens the countryside.

The main growing period of woody vegetation is between August and November. Although Zambia lies within the tropics, much of it has a pleasant climate because of the altitude.

Temperatures are highest in the valleys of the Zambezi, Luangwa, and Kafue and by the shores of Lakes Tanganyika, Mweru, and Bangweulu. There are wide seasonal variations in temperature and rainfall. October is the hottest month. The main rainy season starts in mid-November, with heavy tropical storms lasting well into April. The northern and north-western provinces have an annual rainfall of about cm 50 inwhile areas in the far south have as little as 75 cm 30 in.

May to mid-August is the cool season, after which temperatures rise rapidly. September is very dry. While the rainfall pattern over the whole country is similar - between November and March, the amount of rain varies considerably.

The climate is affected most by the movement of the inter-tropical convergence zone, which is the meeting place of the sub-tropical high-pressure areas of the northern and southern hemispheres. Over the sea, this zone approximates to the equator, and when the sun is overhead at the equator, heavy rains may fall in the equatorial regions of Africa. The zone moves southward with the apparent movement of the sun in the southern summer and brings rain to the greater part of Zambia.

South of Lusaka rainfall is dictated more by the east and Southeast trade winds, which have lost much of their humidity by the time they have reached so far inland. In exceptional years the influence of the inter-tropical zone is felt much farther to the south, resulting in excessive rain in the Southern Province and partial drought in the north.

Except for very rare falls in August, rainfall is confined to the wet season, which sometimes starts as early as October and finishes as early as March.

At the height of the wet season, it rains on seven or eight days out of ten. Average temperatures are moderated by the height of the plateau. Maxima vary from 15oC to 27o C in the cool season with morning and evening temperatures as low as 6oC to 10oC and occasional frost on calm nights in valleys and hollows, which are sheltered from the wind.

In the cool season the prevailing wind, dry south easterlies come from the southern hemisphere belt of high pressure. Invasions of cold air from the southeast bring cloudy to overcast conditions. During the hot season, maximum temperatures may range from 27o C to 35o C. It can be seen that annual temperature variation is greatest at Livingstone, the most southerly town, and the smallest at Mbala, the town nearest the equator.

These woodlands contain only hardwoods. The trees are bare for a brief period only and the spring leaves appear before the start of the rains. Grass fires spread rapidly in the dry season but new blades of grass soon push through the blackened earth.

All kinds of vegetables can be grown, together with citrus fruit, bananas, pineapples, mangoes, avocados and even grapes. Lichis are also a high potential export crop. Tea and coffee are also grown successfully in fact the coffee produced is of a very high quality. Sugar cane is grown both by villagers and commercially. Electricity is relatively cheap due to the abundance of hydroelectric power sources as well as reasonably large coal reserves.

Most of the electricity is supplied from major hydropower stations located in the Kafue Gorge, Lake Kariba north bank and the Victoria Falls as well as from the mini-hydro power stations in Lusiwashi, Musonda Falls, Chishimba Falls and Luzua. The domestic electricity supply is volt, hertz alternating current, with volt single and three-phase supply available for industrial use.

Zambia is internationally recognised as a major producer of emeralds, aquamarines, amethyst and tourmalines and the quality of the gems are highly competitive with world markets. Water is provided principally by the civic authorities in all cities and towns. Many residential properties are served by borehole systems. Zambia's education is generally regarded as a basic human right and is vital to the development of a nation. Education empowers people, enabling them to be proactive, to control their lives and broaden economic and social opportunities.

A long-standing educational goal in Zambia has been that every child who enters Grade 1 should be able to complete Grade 9. This aspiration goes back to the time of the struggle for independence when the nationalist movement established the goal that every Zambian should be able to complete at least a junior secondary education.

In later years, this crystallized as ten years of compulsory schooling for every child, but the Educational Reforms reduced this to nine years. The structure proposed in was that eventually every primary school would extend its offerings up to Grade 9, so that there would be a continuous programme from Grade 1 to Grade 9, with the curriculum organized on the basis of six years of primary and three years of junior secondary education.

The education to be provided during these nine years was referred to in the and subsequent documents as "basic education". The rationale for proposing this extended period of education was twofold. Basic education was to provide general education in basic subjects, skills training and productive work.

Thereby, it was seen as enabling pupils to achieve a standard of functional education, which would equip them to live productively in society, and to possess occupational competence in a skill or group of skills. In other words, its aim was to provide general education, including some practical skills and a sound preparation for further education full-time or part-time. Secondly, it was seen that nine years of compulsory education would allow pupils to grow two years older before they would have to fend for themselves in the world of work, if they did not continue with full-time education or training.

It was believed that on completion of nine years of schooling the learner would be more mature when facing career or educational choices, and would base these on a fuller realization and understanding of his or her abilities, talents and interests.

It was recognized in and subsequently that the achievement of nine years of full-time education for all would take a long time. Financial constraints did not allow the government to proceed vigorously with the provision of additional facilities to make this goal a reality.

Ongoing efforts to expand secondary provision brought about some increase in the number proceeding from Grade 7 to Grade 8, but because of the rapid growth in Grade 7 enrollments, the numbers leaving the school system on completion of Grade 7 increased very rapidly.

This situation prompted communities to adapt or provide facilities in primary schools for the commencement of Grade 8 and Grade 9 classes. Thus began the "basic schools movement" which has gathered momentum over the years. The number of basic schools rose from 51 in to inand their number continues to grow.

Their contribution to educational provision can be gauged from the fact that they now account for more than half the Grade 8 entry. In two respects, this popular movement has set the stage for the future development of education in Zambia: THE CURRENT STRUCTURE OF THE EDUCATION SYSTEM [65].